I M£s aw ?•-- * •*;' " -^-v , ~\ - ' V • -^$> THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. ten 1777—1784. eighteen 1788 — 1797. twenty 1801 — 1810. twenty 1815 — 1817. twenty 1823 — 1824. twenty-one ' 1830 — 1842. twenty-two 1853 — 1860. twenty-five 1875 — 1889. ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XIX MUN to ODDFELLOWS Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 1911 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A. W. H. AMBROSIUS ARNOLD WILLEM HUBRECHT, LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D. Professor of Zoology, and Director of the Institute of Zoology in the University-^ Nemertina (in part). of Utrecht. Author of Nemertines. I A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. I Numbers, Partition of. See the biographical article : CAYLEY, ARTHUR. A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J JJematoda (in part); Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, i Nematomorpna; Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I- Nemertina (in part). A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f „ Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' Nicholas, Henry; College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- -j Northumberland, John Dudley, 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of duke of. England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. \ See the biographical article : GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. \ „ r Mutian; A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J »,„„„_.• . Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. US' 1 Myconius, Oswald. Nnnn|otnnicm an M80?1"0111 l I* A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D. See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \ A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINBLER, C.I.E. f W|eh,. General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ m A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f Nestorians (f» part); Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent) NestOHUS (in part); College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of | New Jerusalem Church; Mysore Educational Service. [ Nicholas of Basel. A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. f Mytholop; See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. Name (Local and Personal Names). A. LI. D. ARTHUR LLEWELLYN DAVIES (d. 1907). Trinity College, Cambridge; Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant -I Negligence. Reader in Common Law under the Council of Legal Education. A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). (" Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of-{ Municipium. Roman History, 133-70 B.C. l_ ( Nestor; Nidiflcation (in part); A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. ., . Vn^ . See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. tmgaie, fi lay. Nutcracker; Nuthatch; [ Oeydrome. A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. f President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of South African Studies ; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical I watal (in •hn.rf) practice in South Africa till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, ' and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. A. R. S. SIR ALEXANDER RUSSELL SIMPSON, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.). Emeritus Professor of Midwifery, Edinburgh University. Dean of the Faculty of -I Obstetrics. Medicine and Professor in the University, 1870-1905. A. S. E. ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTON, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.A.S. f Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, \ Nebula. Cambridge. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributions, appears in the final volume. v 1988 all] n VI A. S. P.-P. A. Ts. A. W. H.* A. W. Hu. B. S. R B. S. P. B. W.* C. F. M. B. C. H. Ha. C. H. W. J. C. K. S. C. M. C. Mi. C.PL C. R. B. C. S. S. D. B. Ma. D. F. T. D. G. H. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J Mysticism. Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. ALBERT THOMAS. Member of the French Chamber of Deputies. Contributor to Vol. xi. of theH Napoleon III. Cambridge Modern History. Author of Le second Empire, &c. I ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900 I Nonjurors. 'ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON. f Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National J Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives 1 of the English Saints ; &c. I -LORD BALCARRES, F.S.A., M.P. Trustee of National Portrait Gallery. Hon. Secretary of Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings; Vice-Chairman of National Trust. Junior Lord of the' Treasury, 1903-1905. M.P. for Chorley division of Lanes from 1895. Son and heir of the 26th earl of Crawford. Museums of Art.. SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., ASSOC.INST.C.E., M.INST.M.E. Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical " Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and its Products; Chemical Technology; &c. Naphtha. BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin). Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. BECKLES WILLSON. • Author of The Hudson's Bay Company ; The Romance of Canada ; &c. CHARES FREDERIC MOBERLY BELL. Managing Director of The Times. Correspondent in Egypt, 1865-1890. Author of Khedives and Pashas; From Pharaoh to Fellah; &c. •j Norway: Early History. Newfoundland. JJubar Pasha. Author of •) Nineveh. CARLTON HUNTLY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. r iis/.i.«i«., m ru Assistant Professor of History at Columbia University, New York City. Member J * las' m" IV° of the American Historical Association. [ (popes). REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., LITT.D. Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. Assyrian Deeds and Documents. CLEMENT KING SHORTER. r „ Editor of the Sphere. Author of Charlotte Bronte and her Circle; The Brontes :J * Life and Letters ; &c. [ Illustrated Papers. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. f Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik •< Nicaea, Council of. im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstlhums ; &c. [ CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902- 1903- CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES L. f Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Neustria. Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow J . of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. ] Nlkltin; Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. [ Norden, John. CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. r Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies J Mnclim Ihn of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action of] the Nervous System. |_ DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of J mr.,-,1,. _nli Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Selec-} rauscle lions from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. [_ DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis 1899 and • 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn D. H. D. M. W. D. N. P. D. Wr. E. A. F. E. B. T. E. F. S. E.G. E. Gr. E.He. E. H. M. Ed. M. E. N.-R. E. Pr. E. P. C. E. R. L. E. S. G. E. Wa. E. W. H.* F. E. B. F. G. M. B. F. G. P. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. {Napoleonic Campaigns: Naval Operations; Navarino, Battle of; Navy; Nelson; Nile, Battle of the. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I. E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart- ment of The Times, 1891-1899. Joint-editor of new volumes (loth edition) of the •{ Nihilism. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question; The Web of Empire; &c. DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super- I intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. T Nutrition. Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human I Physiology; &c. DANIEL WRIGHT, M.D. Translated the History of Nepaul, from the Parbatiya, with an " Introductory -| Nepal (in part). Sketch of the Country and People of Nepaul." L EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. ("„ See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A. \ Nobility; Normans. EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects, of Bell's " Cathedral '' Series. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. Oath. Member of n»llt,i,o,>*,, Joint-editor 1 lnkaesy. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. : Norton, Thomas; J Norway: Norwegian Literature; [ Novel. •'. Mycenae; Naucratis. Librarian of the Royal Geographical -j Nyasa. Neuri. Nascimento. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Society, London. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. EDWARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. EUSTACE NEVILLE-ROLFE, C.V.O. (1845-1908). -f Nanles Formerly H.M. Consul-General at Naples. Author of Naples in the 'Nineties; &c. \ ' EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. E. P. CATHCART, M.D. Grieve Lecturer in Chemical Physiology, University of Glasgow. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian Demonstrator of Com- parative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford. REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. Narses (King of Persia). | Nutrition (in part). Mussel (in part). Myzostomida. Oar. SIR EDWARD WALTER HAMILTON, G.C.B., K.C.V.O. (1847-1908). rv .. . n Joint Permanent Secretary to H.M. Treasury, 1902-1908. Author of National J "«»onal " Debt Conversion and Redemption. Conversions (in part). FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger" Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Coloration; &c. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on ' „ ... ,. -, lematooa (in part). r Muscuiar system- " -, . Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 Nerve; Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L Nervous System. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Senior Censor, Student, Tutor -i Numantia. and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford, 1891-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and J Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial | German Archaeological Institute. L F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f Nassarawa; See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Nigeria. F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. (" jjaDOieonic Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the~{ f,... World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign ; The Jena Campaign; &c. L *«••* F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. ("Natal (in part); Niger; Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Nile (in part). F. W. Ha. FREDERICK WILLIAM HASLUCK, M.A. r Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, Athens. Fellow of King's^ Mysia. College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901. [_ F. W. Mo. FREDERICK WALKER MOTT, F.R.S., M.D., F.R.C.P. f" Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London. Pathologist to the London County J Neuralgia; Neurasthenia; Asylums. Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution. Editor of Archives | Neuropathology. of Neurology. I G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. f Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. University of Oxford. . Fellow of Oriel College; Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. L G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S. [ Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales, Bangor, 1884-1896. 4 Number. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal Com- -\ New South Wales: History. mission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne. G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. \ Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- J w ,, . , 1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the j letnerianos. British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian Boundary Arbitrations. [ G. F. H.* GEORGE FRANCIS HILL, M.A. r Assistant in the Department of Coins, British Museum. Corresponding Member of I vumjsmatics the German and Austrian Archaeological Institutes. Author of Coins of Ancient"] Sicily ; Historical Greek Coins ; Historical Roman Coins ; &c. L G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r Rector of Sutton Sandy, Bedfordshire. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, Uni- J Nahum versity of Oxford. 1908-1909. Author of Short Introduction to Literature of the Old | Testament; &c. t G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. (Lond.). • f Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Neuroptera. their Structure and Life. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J. Northampton, Assize of. Society. [ G. K. G. GROVE KARL GILBERT, LL.D. r Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey. President of the American Geological Society, J wjaeara 1892-1893 and 1909-1910. Formerly Special Lecturer at Cornell, Columbia and 1 Johns Hopkins Universities. Author of Glaciers and Glaciation ; &c. L G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. r«-vi j._ rn, u - - Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old J HaDl? Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. ( Nawawl; Nosairis. H. A. G. HERBERT APPOLD GRUEBER, F.S.A. Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum. Treasurer of the Egypt Exploration I Fund. Vice-President of the Royal Numismatic Society. Author of Coins of the'] Numismatics (in part). Roman Republic ; &c. H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f National Debt Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, j Necker (in -barf) University of California. Author of History of the French Revolution ; Modern ] European History ; &c. H. M. T. HENRY MARTYN TAYLOR, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; formerly Tutor and Lecturer. Smith's ^ Newton, Sir Isaac. Prizeman, 1865. Editor of the Pitt Press Euclid. L H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. f Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Morth Sea; Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University, j Norwegian Sea. Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. L H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D. Director of British Rainfall Organization. Formerly President of the Royal Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St . Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. British Delegate to International Conference on the Exploration of the Sea at Christiania, 1901. Author of The Realm of Nature; The Clyde Sea Area; The English Lakes; The International Geography. Editor of British Rainfall. Ocean and Oceanography. H. St. HENRY STURT. M.A. { mj,,n— Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. r Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Murimuth* Nennius. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins ; Charlemagne. H. Wy. MAJOR-GENERAL HENRY WYLIE, C.S.I. f Officiating Agent to the Governor-General of India for Baluchistan, 1898-1900. •< Nepal (in part). Resident at Nepal, 1891-1900. I. H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. r Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J _. .. . ,. .. Oxford, 1901. Author of "Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthrop- 1 O»aoian (in part). ology," in Mansfield College Essays; &c. L L A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. (" Nachmanides; Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, I majara. Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- \ " " ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. {. "asi. J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. /»„„- u.,,, *-, c~ n^\ See the biographical article : CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER. \ H('er' V n fart>- J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. (Lond.). f Mncphoiiraiir- Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -{ rau!>l'ne *"*» The Geology of Building Stones. I Neocomian. J. A. L. R. JOHN ATHELSTAN LAURIE RILEY, M.A. J .., „ / . .% Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks ; &c. \ Nl istonans (™ Part>- J. A. P.* REV. JAMES .ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. f Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Editor < Numbers, BOOK of. of Book of Numbers in the " Polychrome " Bible; &c. L J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Nicholas (King of Monte- Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 neern) Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. [ J. F. -K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. r Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and_ Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. J Nunez de Arce. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L J. Hd. JOHN HOLLINGSHEAD (1827-1904). (* Founder of the Gaiety Theatre, London. Member of Theatrical Licensing Reform -| Music Halls. Committee, 1866 and 1892. Author of Gaiety Chronicles; &c. [ J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. [ Name: Gree* and &"*an Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Names; I Noricum. J. H. H. JOHN HENRY Mn>DLET9N, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). r Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director Mural TWoratinn fi« -hurt)- of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J " U6COra Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. f Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Neville (Family). Pedigree. I J. Holl. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lixx.D. (" Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge Uni- J Mannionn i versity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic \ *aP°'eon »• Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. 3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, Lrrr.D. Professor of English Literature in the New York Jewish Theological Seminary of I America. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corre- 1 Nethinim. spending Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. 3. J. Lr. JOSEPH JACKSON LISTER, M.A., F.R.S. f Mycetozoa. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. J. L. E. D. JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER. Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to •{ Observatory. Kepler; &c. I J. M. By. J. M. BRYDON. f Nfisflpid Architect of Chelsea Town Hall and Polytechnic, &c. \ w J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. fNaucrarv Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -! ^ , . N College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Neoplaionism (in part). J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. (" Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Nejef ; the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Babylonia, ] Nippur. 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I J. Si.* REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. I" Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), Antananarivo, Mada- J «___• ux gascar. Member de 1'Academie Malgache. Author of Madagascar and its People; ] nossl"De> Madagascar before the Conquest; A Madagascar Bibliography; &c. I J. S. Bl. REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. Assistant-editor of the o.th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of -< Nestorius (in part). the Encyclopaedia Biblica. [_ J.S.P. JOHN SMITH FLETT, DSc.F.G.S f Mylonite; Napoleonite; Petrographer to H.M. Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology ml M.-I.. Wani,.]in- cuon;*0. Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsbv 1 5C*' WePhellne-Syenite, Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Nephehmtes; Obsidian. J. S. K. JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star. Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical^ National Debt (in part). Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of I the Geographical Journal. J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. rNikolayev (in part); Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical i Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part); Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [Novgorod (in part). J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. fiviiiccoi c« A/, Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly) ?T~ Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in | Nautilus; The University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. [ Octopus. JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Pn.D. f M.-I,..,, /• .,-,,1 Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ a J. T. S.* J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -J Navigation Laws. College. J. W.* JAMES WARD, LL.D. f „ . See the biographical article: WARD, JAMES. >m- Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Naturalization. 1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict of Laws; Chapters on the Principles of International Law; part i. " Peace "; part ii. J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and I New South Wales: Geology; Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 "New Zealand: Geology, of Australia; &c. J. W. L. G. JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (~ Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J HaD;er John Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger ] of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. {. K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Mu.sic*! ,Box; Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the'} Na" Violin; Orchestra. . L Nay; Oboe (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Muscovite* Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j M . ,. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- 1 ne' logical Magazine. [ Niccolite. L. R. F. LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., LITT.D. f Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford University Lecturer in Classical J M f Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Corresponding Member 1 «»ysl*ry. of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Evolution of Religion ; &c. I L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI. r Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent I „ „.. in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, ] "aples, Kingdom Of. and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. L L. W. K. LEONARD WILLIAM KING, M.A., F.S.A. t King's College, Cambridge. Assistant in Department of Egyptian and Assyrian j Mjnnllr. T/.. TV,;.,... v Antiquities, British Museum; Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College and London 1 University. Author of The Seven Tablets of Creation ; &c. I M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. fltfohn- NorI. • i r *; of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 Morway* Physical Geography. Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. I R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De- limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c. R. C. T. SIR RICHARD CARNAC TEMPLE, BART., C.I.E. r Lieut.-Colonel. Formerly Chief Commissioner, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hon. -| Nicobar Islands. Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Joint-author of Andamanese Language; &c. [ R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L. f Newman, Francis William; See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \Newton, Sir C. T. R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MACNEILL, M.A. r Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's •< Murray Lord George Gazette, London. R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Muntjac; Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Musir Ox- Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer\ „ , . ' of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. I Mylodon. R. La. ROBERT LATOUCHE. Archivist of the department of Tarn et Garonne. Author of Histoire du comte du -j Normandy. Maine au X. et au XI. siecle. R. S. P. xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the -aAHae^-u- Nonean uonc- Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J "* en> Hans> 1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 Nikon. to 1706; &c. i *• R. S. B. SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL, F.R.S., LL.D. Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry, University of Cambridge. I ijei.uiar Thpnrv Director of the Cambridge Observatory and Fellow of King's College. Royal j neDUla neory. Astronomer of Ireland, 1874-1892. Author of The Story of the Heavens; &c. REGINALD STUART POOLE, LL.D. Jw,,mi.»..««. /•• ,\ See the biographical article : POOLE, REGINALD STUART. \ Numismatics (in part) . R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMANN TARR. f Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. Special Field Assistant of the -j New York (in part). U.S. Geological Survey. Author of Physical Geography of New York State. [_ S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. f Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Nabataeans (in part) ; Aramaic, London University, 1904—1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904— ] Nazarite (in part) 1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient [ Palestine; &c. St C. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. f Nicole See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, ist Earl of. \ S. H. V.* SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, J Naegeli. Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the University of 1 London. Author of Student's Text Book of Botany; &c. S. K. STEN KONOW, PH.D. I" Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier de 1'Academie J MundSs. Frangaise. Author of Stamavidhana Brahmana ; The Karpuramanjari ; Munda j and Dravidian. S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. f „__. - D, A See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ Neptu T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., LITT.D. f Nemorensis Lacus; Nepi; Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Nola; Nomentana, Via; Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the-| Nomentum; Nora; Norba; Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of Novara; Nuceria Alfaterna; the Roman Campagna. [ Nuoro T. A. C. TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O. f M Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, J New South Wales: 1886-1905. Author of Wealth and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account | Geography and Statistics, of Australia and New Zealand; &c. L T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. J Name: Law; Trinity College, Dublin. I Octroi. T. A. J. THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. f Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo- -j Negro (in part). logical Society. (. T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. r H.,,*--!-*,,. Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of „ . the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of\ North Sea Fisheries Conven- International Practice and Diplomacy ; &c. M. P. for Blackburn, 1910. [ tion. T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. / Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. \ NeO-Caesarea, Synod Of. T. H. THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., LITT.D. f „ , v r „ See the biographical article : HODGHN, THOMAS. \ NarS6S ^Roman General>- T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. \ Muscat; Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier. Surveys, India, 1892-) North- West Frontier Pro- 1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- 1 „«„.,„ Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. L T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. f Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. •{ Occam, William of. Author of Life of Luther ; &c. L T. W. R. D THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. r Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal -{ Nagarjuna; Nikaya. Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. L V. H. VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. f Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of the < Oboe (in part). Legion of Honour. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern), r Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of J Neuchatel. the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. L W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Murat- Nibeluneenlied- Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, < Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. L Nlcnol»S I (of Russia). W. Bl. WILLIAM BLAIN, C.B. (d. 1908). f National Debt: Conversions Principal Clerk and First Treasury Officer of Accounts, 1903-1908. \ (in part). W. Cr. WALTER CRANE. f Mnral narnratinn (in t>n.rt\ See the biographical article : CRANE, WALTER. \ M W. E. G. SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. f Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation,-^ Nile (in part). Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f •»„„.„, Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ f 4nce' London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). |_ Obscenity. W. F. R. WILLIAM FIDDIAN REDDAWAY, M.A. r Censor of Non-Collegiate Students, Cambridge. Fellow and Lecturer of King's J Norway: History College. Author of " Scandinavia," in Vol. xi. of the Cambridge Modern History. 1 W. F. W. WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., Pn.D. r Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association •! Negro (United States). and Secretary of the American Economical Association. Author of The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c. I W. G.* WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. I" H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal; 4 Natal: Geology. Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coal-mining; &c. W. H. Be. REV^ WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT^M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. i.J Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. I Nimrod; Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ; Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 Noah College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. I W. H. F. SLR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f «,__.,", See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. 1 W. H. P. WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. f „ Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Saturday Review, 1883-1894. Author of -j Mussel, Alfred de. Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; &c. W. J. H. WILLIAM JACOB HOLLAND, A.M., D.D., LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D. f Director of the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg. President of the American Association "j Museums of Science, of Museums, 1907-1909. Editor of Annals and Memoirs of Carnegie Museum. I W. L. F. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. f Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary -| Nullification. History of Reconstruction ; &c. W. L. G. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly J Wnw Rrnnci»i»k Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 'ew BrunswlcK Council (Canadian Series). L W. Mo. WILLIAM MORRIS. /M,,—I T\«- «*•«-/•• See the biographical article : MORRIS, WILLIAM. \ Mural Decoratl<"» (*» W. M. D. WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D. f Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical i North America. Geography. Author of Physical Geography ; &c. W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. f „ ... See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. \ munu0t W. 0. M. WILLIAM O'CONNOR MORRIS (d. 1904). Formerly Judge of County Courts, Ireland; and Professor of Law to the King's J nTnnnnll Daniel Inns, Dublin. Author of Great Commanders of Modern Times; Irish History] ' uallel' Ireland, 1798-1898; &c. L W. P. R. THE HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. f Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour, and Justice, New-^ New Zealand. Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand; &c. W. R. E. H. WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.C.S. f Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J Nitrnzlvpprin Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin- 1 Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c. L XIV iV . r\. I"l j W. R. M.* W. R. S. W. S. IVl. W. T. A. W. W. R.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). r Formerly Professor of Russian and other Slavonic Languages in the University of I »,,_*,.,. .Oxford. Author of Russia; Slavonic^ neslor- Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution Literature; &c. WILLIAM ROBERT MARTIN. Captain, R.N. Formerly Lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author of Treatise on Navigation and Nautical Astronomy; &c. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article : SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. WILLIAM SYMINGTON M'CORMICK, M.A., LL.D. Secretary to the Carnegie Trust of the Scottish Universities. Formerly Professor of English, University College, Dundee. Author of Lectures on Literature; &c. WALKER TALLMADGE ARNDT, M.A. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, D. PH. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. I t Navigation. f Nabataeans (in part) ; I Nazarite (in part) ; 1 Numeral; I Obadiah (in part). •I Occleve. | New York (in part). Nimes, Councils of. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Munich. Murad. Muratori. Mushroom. Mutilation. Mysore. Narcissus. Narcotics. Nashville. Nassau. Nebraska. Nevada. New Caledonia. Newcastle, Dukes of. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. New England. New Guinea. New Hampshire. New Hebrides. New Jersey. New Mexico. New Orleans. New York City. Ney. Niam-Niam. Nicaragua. Nice. Nickel. Nightingale, Florence. Nimes. Nitre-Compounds. Nitrogen. Norfolk, Earls and Dukes of. Norfolk. Northampton, Earls and Marquesses of. Northamptonshire. North Carolina. North Dakota. Northumberland, Earls and Dukes of. Northumberland. Norwich. Nottingham. Nottinghamshire. Novaya Zemlya. Nuremberg. Nursing. Nut. Oak. Oates, Titus. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XIX MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841- ), French politician, was born at Lumigny, in the department of Seine-et-Marne, on the 28th of February 1841. He entered the army, saw much service in Algeria (1862), and took part in the fighting around Metz in 1870. On the surrender of Metz, he was sent as a prisoner of war to Aix-la-Chapelle, whence he returned in time to assist at the capture of Paris from the Commune. A fervent Roman Catholic, he devoted himself to advocating a patriarch type of Christian Socialism. His elo- quence made him the most prominent member of the Cercles Catholiques d'Ouvriers, and his attacks on Republican social policy at last evoked a prohibition from the minister of war. He thereupon resigned his commission (Nov. 1875), and in the following February stood as Royalist and Catholic candidate for Pontivy. The influence of the Church was exerted to secure his election, and the pope during its progress sent him the order of St Gregory. He was returned, but the election was declared invalid. He was re-elected, however, in the following August, and for many years was the most conspicuous leader of the anti-Republican party. " We form," he said on one occasion, '' the irreconcilable Counter-Revolution." As far back as 1878 he had declared himself opposed to universal suffrage, a declaration that lost him his seat from 1879 to 1881. He spoke strongly against the expulsion of the French princes, and it was chiefly through his influence that the support of the Royalist party was given to General Boulanger. But as a faithful Catholic he obeyed the encyclical of 1892, and declared his readiness to rally to a Republican government, provided that it respected religion. In the following January he received from the pope a letter commending his action, and encouraging him in his social reforms. He was defeated at the general election of that year, but in 1894 was returned for Finistere (Morlaix). In 1897 he succeeded Jules Simon as a member of the French Academy. This honour he owed to the purity of style and remarkable eloquence of his speeches, which, with a few pamphlets, form the bulk of his published work. In Ma voca- tion sociale (1908) he wrote an explanation and justification of his career. MUN, THOMAS (1571-1641), English writer on economics, was the third son of John Mun, mercer, of London. He began by engaging in Mediterranean trade, and afterwards settled down in London, amassing a large fortune. He was a member of the committee of the East India Company and of the standing commission on trade appointed in 1622. In 1621 Mun published A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies. But it is by his England's Treasure by Forraign Trade that he is nx. i remembered in his history of economics. Although written possibly about 1630, it was not given to the public until 1664, when it was " published for the Common good by his son John," and dedicated to Thomas, earl of Southampton, lord high treasurer. In it we find for the first time a clear statement of the theory of the balance of trade. MUNCHAUSEN, BARON. This name is famous in literary history on account of the amusingly mendacious stories known as the Adventures of Baron Munchausen. In 1785 a little shilling book of 49 pages was published in London (as we know from the Critical Review for December 1785), called Baron Munchausen' s Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia. No copy is known to exist, but a second edition (apparently identical) was printed at Oxford early in 1786. The publisher of both these editions was a certain Smith, and he then sold it to another bookseller named Kearsley, who brought out in 1786 an enlarged edition (the additions to which were stated in the 7th edition not to be by the original author), with illustra- tions under the title of Gulliver Reviv'd: the Singular Travels, Campaigns, Voyages, and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnik- houson, commonly pronounced Munchaitsen; as he relates them over a bottle when surrounded by his friends. Four editions rapidly succeeded, and a free German translation by the poet Gottfried August Burger, from the fifth edition, was printed at Gottingen in 1786. The seventh English edition (1793), which is the usual text, has the moral sub-title, Or the Vice of Lying properly exposed, and had further new additions. In 1 792 a Sequel appeared, dedicated to James Bruce, the African traveller, whose Travels to Discover the Nile (1790) had led to incredulity and ridicule. As time went on Munchausen increased in popu- larity and was translated into many languages. Continuations were published, and new illustrations provided (e.g. by T. Rowlandson, 1809; A. Crowquill, 1859; A. Cruikshank, 1869; the French artist Richard, 1878; Gustave Dore, 1862; W. Strang and J. B. Clark, 1895). The theme of Baron Munchausen, the " drawer of the long-bow " par excellence, has become part of the common stock of the world's story-telling. The original author was at first unknown, and until 1824 he was generally identified with Burger, who made the .German translation of 1786. But Burger's biographer, Karl von Rein- hard, in the Berlin Gesellschafter of November 1824, set the matter at rest by stating that the real author was Rudolf Erich Raspe (q.v.). Raspe had apparently become acquainted at Gottingen with Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von Miinchhausen, of Bodenwerder in Hanover. This Freiherr von Miinchhausen (1720-1797) had been in the Russian service and MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN— MUNDAS served against the Turks, and on retiring in 1760 he lived on his estates at Bodenwerder and used to amuse himself and his friends, and puzzle the quidnuncs and the dull-witted, by relating extraordinary instances of his prowess as soldier and sportsman. His stories became a byword among his circle, and Raspe, when hard up f^r a living in London, utilized the suggestion for his little brochure. But his narrative owed much also to such sources, known to Raspe, as Heinrich Bebel's Facetiae bebelianae (1508), J. P. Lange's Ddiciae academicae (1665), a section of which is called Mendacia ridicula, Castiglione's Cortcgiano (1528), the Travels of the Finkenritter, attributed to Lorenz von Lauterbach in the i6th century, and other works of this sort. Raspe can only be held responsible for the nucleus of the book; the additions were made by book- sellers' hacks, from such sources as Lucian's Vera historia, or the Voyages imaginaires (1787), while suggestions were taken from Baron de Toll's Memoirs (Eng. Irans. 1785), the conlem- porary aeronaulical feats of Montgolfier and Blanchard, and any topical " sensations " of the moment, such as Bruce's explora- tions in Africa. Munchausen is thus a medley, as we have it, a classical instance of the fanlastical mendacious literary genre. See the introduction by T. Seccombe to Lawrence and Bullen's edition of 1895. Adolf Ellisen, whose father visited Freiherr von Mtinchhausen in 1795 and found him very uncommunicative, brought out a German edition in 1849, with a valuable essay on pseudology in general. There is useful material in Carl Muller-Fraureuth's Die deutschenLugendichtungenaufMunchkausen(i88i)andinGriesbacYi's edition of Burger's translation (1890). MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, ELIGIUS FRANZ JOSEPH, FREIHERR VON (1806-1871), Austrian poet and dramatist (who wrote under the pseudonym " Friedrich Halm >;), was born al Cracow on Ihe 2nd of April 1806, the son of a districl judge. Educaled al firsl al a private school in Vienna, he afterwards altended lectures al Ihe university, and in 1826, at the early age of twenty, married and entered Ihe governmenl service. In 1840 he became Regierungsral, in 1845 Hofrat and custodian of the royal library, in 1861 life member of the Austrian Herren- haus (upper chamber), and from 1869 to 1871 was inlendanl of the two court Iheatres in Vienna. He died at Hulteldorf near Vienna on the 2 2nd of May 1871. Miinch-Bellinghausen's dramas, among them notably Griseldis (1835; publ. 1837; nth ed., 1896), Der Adept (1836; publ. 1838), Camoens (1838), Der Sohn der WUdnis (1842; loth ed., 1896), and Der Fechter von Ravenna (1854; publ. 1857; 6lh ed., 1894), are dislinguished by elegance of language, melodious versification and clever construc- tion, and were for a lime exceedingly popular. His poems, Gedichle, were published in Stuttgart, 1850 (new ed., Vienna. 1877). His works, Santliche Werke, were published in eight volumes (1856-1864), to which four posthumous volumes were added in 1872. Ausgewdhlte Werke, ed. by A. Schlossar, 4 vols. (1904). See F. Pachler, Jugend und Lehrjahre des Dichters F. Halm (1877); J. Simiani, Gedenkblatter an F. Halm (1873). Halm's correspondence with Enk von der Burg has been published by R. Schachinger (1890). MUNCIE, a city and the county-seal of Delaware counly, Indiana, U.S.A., on Ihe West Fork of Ihe While river, about 57 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880), 5210; (1800), 11,345; (1900) 20,942, of whom 1235 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 24,005. It is served by the Cenlral Indiana, Ihe Chicago, Cincinnali & Louisville, Ihe Cleveland, Cincinnali, Chicago & Si Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, Ihe Forl Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Lake Erie & Western railways, and by Ihe Indiana Union Traction, the Dayton & Muncie Traction, and the Muncie & Portland Traction (eleclric inler-urban) railways. The cily is buill on level ground (allitude 950 ft.), and has an altractive residential section. It is one of the principal manufacturing centres in Indiana, owing largely lo ils silualion in Ihe natural gas belt. In 1900 and in 1905 it was the largest producer of glass and glassware in Ihe Uniled States, the value of its product in 1905 being $2,344,462. Muncie (named after the Munsee Indians, one of the Ihree principal divisions of Ihe Dela wares) was settled about 1833 and was chartered as a city in 1865. MUNDAS. The Munda (Munda) family is the least numerous of the linguistic families of India. It comprises several dialects spoken in the two Chota Nagpur plateaux, the adjoining districls of Madras and Ihe Central Provinces, and in the Mahadeo hills. The number of speakers of Ihe various dialects, according to the census of 1901, are as follow: Santali, 1,795,113; Mundari, 460,744; Bhumij, 111,304; Birhar, 526; Koda, 23,873; Ho, 371,860; Tun, 3880; Asuri, 4894; Korwa, 16,442; Korku, 87,675; Kharia, 82,506; Juang, 10,853; Savara, 157,136; Gadaba, 37,230; total, 3,164,036. Santali, Mundari, Bhumij, Birhar, Koda, Ho, Tun, Asuri and Korwa are only siighlly differing forms of one and Ihe same language, which can be called Kherwari, a name borrowed from Santali Iradition. Kherwari is the principal Munda language, and quite 88% of all Ihe speakers of Munda longues belong lo it. The Korwa dialect, spoken in the western part of Chota Nagpur, connects Kherwari with the remaining Munda languages. Of Ihese il is mosl closely relaled lo the Kurku language of the Mahadeo hills in Ihe Cenlral Provinces. Kurku, in ils lurn, in important poinls agrees with Kharia and Juang, and Kharia leads over to Savara and Gadaba. The Iwo lasl-menlioned forms of speech, which are spoken in the north-easl of Ihe Madras Presidency, have been much influenced by Dravidian languages. The Munda dialecls are nol in sole possession of Ihe lerrilory where Ihey are spoken. They are, as a rule, only found in Ihe hills and jungles, while Ihe plains and valleys are inhabiled by people speaking some Aryan language. When brought into close contacl with Aryan tongues the Munda forms of speech are apt to give way, and in the course of time they have been partly superseded by Aryan dialecls. There are accordingly some Aryanized Iribes in norlhern India who have formerly belonged lo Ihe Munda slock. Such are Ihe Cheros of Behar and Chota Nagpur, the Kherwars, who are found in the same localities, in Mirzapur and elsewhere, the Savaras, who formerly extended as far north as Shahabad, and others. It seems possible lo Irace an old Munda element in some Tibeto-Burman dialecls spoken in Ihe Himalayas from Bashahr easlwards. By race the Mundas are Dravidians, and their language was likewise long considered as a member of Ihe Dravidian family. Max Muller was the first to dislinguish the two families. He also coined the name Munda for the smaller of them, which has later on often been spoken of under other denominations, such as Kolarian and Kherwarian. The Dravidian race is generally considered as the aboriginal population of soulhern India. The Mundas, who do nol appear lo have extended much farther towards the south than at presenl, must have mixed with the Dravidians from very early times. The so-called Nahali dialed of Ihe Mahadeo hills seems lo have been originally a Munda form of speech which has come under Dravidian influ- ence, and finally passed under Ihe spell of Aryan longues. The same is perhaps the case with the numerous dialects spoken by Ihe Bhils. Al all evenls, Munda languages have apparently been spoken over a wide area in central and north India. They were Ihen early superseded by Dravidian and Aryan dialecls, and al Ihe present day only scanty remnanls are found in the hills and jungles of Bengal and the Cenlral Provinces. Though Ihe Munda family is not connected wilh any olher languages in India proper, it does not form an isolaled group. It belongs to a widely spread family, which extends from India in the west to Easter Island in the easlern Pacific in Ihe easl. In Ihe first place, we find a connected language spoken by the Khasis of the Khasi hills in Assam. Then follow the Mon- Khmer languages of Farther India, Ihe dialecls spoken by Ihe aboriginal inhabilants of the Malay Peninsula, the Nancowry of Ihe Nicobars, and, finally, Ihe numerous dialecls of Auslro- nesia, viz. Indonesic, Melanesic, Polynesic, and so on. Among Ihe various members of Ihis vast group the Munda languages are most closely related to the Mon-Khmer family of Farther India. Kurku, Kharia, Juang, Savara and Gadaba are more closely related lo lhal family lhan is Kherwari, the principal Munda form of speech. We do not know if the Mundas enlered India from wilhoul. MUNDAY If so, they can only have immigrated from the east. At all events they must have been settled in India from a very early period. The Sabaras, the ancestors of the Savaras, are already mentioned in old Vedic literature. The Munda languages seem to have been influenced by Dravidian and Aryan forms of speech. In most characteristics, however, they differ widely from the neighbouring tongues. The Munda languages abound in vowels, and also possess a richly developed system of consonants. Like the Dravidian languages, they avoid beginning a word with more than one consonant. While those latter forms of speech shrink from pronouncing a short conso- nant at the end of words, the Mundas have the opposite tendency, viz. to shorten such sounds still more. The usual stopped consonants — viz. k, c (i.e. English ch), t and p — are formed by stopping the current of breath at different points in the mouth, and then letting it pass out with a kind of explosion. In the Munda language this operation can be abruptly checked half-way, so that the breath does not touch the organs of speech in passing out. The result is a sound that makes an abrupt impression on the ear, and has been described as an abrupt tone. Such sounds are common in the Munda languages. They are usually written k', c', t' and p'. Similar sounds are also found in the Mon-Khmer languages and in Indo-Chinese. The vowels of consecutive syllables to a certain extent approach each other in sound. Thus in Kherwari the open sounds a (nearly English a in all) and a (the a in care) agree with each other and not with the corresponding close sounds o (the o in pole) and e (the e in pen). The Santali passive suffix ok' accordingly becomes dk' after a or d ; compare sdn-dk', go, but dal-ok', to be struck. Words are formed from monosyllabic bases by means of various additions, suffixes (such as are added after the base), prefixes (which Precede the base) and infixes (which are inserted into the base itself), uffixes play a great r61e in the inflexion of words, while prefixes and infixes are of greater importance as formative additions. Compare Kurku k-on, Savara on, son ; Kharia ro-mong, Kherwari mu, nose ; Santali bar, to fear; bo-to-r, fear; dal, to strike; da-pa-l, to strike each other. The various classes of words are not clearly distinguished. The same base can often be used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. The words simply denote some being, object, quality, action or the like, but they do not tell us how they are conceived. Inflexion is effected in the usual agglutinative way by means of additions which are " glued " or joined to the unchanged base. In many respects, however, Munda inflexion has struck out peculiar lines. Thus there is no grammatical distinction of gender. Nouns can be divided into two classes, viz. those that denote animate beings and those that denote inanimate objects respectively. There are three numbers — the singular, the dual and the plural. On the other hand, there are no real cases, at least in the most typical Munda, languages. The direct and the indirect object are indicated by means of certain additions to the verb. Certain relations in time and space, however, are indicated by means of suffixes, which have probably from the beginning been separate words with a definite meaning. The genitive, which can be considered as an adjective preceding the governing word, is often derived from such forms denoting locality. Compare Santali hdr-rd, in a man; Mr-ran, of a man. Higher numbers are counted in twenties, and not in tens as in the Dravidian languages. The pronouns abound in different forms. Thus there are double sets of the dual and the plural of the pronoun of the first person, one including and the other excluding the person addressed. The Rev. A. Nottrott aptly illustrates the importance of this distinction by remarking how it is necessary to use the exclusive form if telling the servant that " we shall dine at seven." Otherwise the speaker will invite the servant to partake of the meal. In addition to the usual personal pronouns there are also short forms, used as suffixes and infixes, which denote a direct object, an indirect object, or a genitive. There is a corresponding richness in the case of demonstrative pronouns. Thus the pronoun " that " in Santali has different forms to denote a living being, an inanimate object, something seen, some- thing heard, and so on. On the other hand, there is no relative pronoun, the want being supplied by the use of indefinite forms of the verbal bases, which can in this connexion be called relative participles. The most characteristic feature of Munda grammar is the verb, especially in Kherwari. Every independent word can perform the function of a verb, and every verbal form can, in its turn, be used as a noun or an adjective. The bases of the different tenses can there- fore be described as indifferent words which can be used as a noun, as an adjective, and as a verb, but which are in reality none of them. Each denotes simply the root meaning as modified by time. Thus in Santali the base ddl-ket', struck, which is formed from the base dal, by adding the suffix kef of the active past, can be used as a noun (compare dal-ket'-ko, strikers, those that struck), as an adjective (compare dal-ket'-hdr, struck man, the man that struck), and as a verb. In the last case it is necessary to add an a if the action really takes place; thus, dal-kef-a, somebody struck. It has already been remarked that the cases of the direct and indirect object are indicated by adding forms of the personal pronouns to the verb. Such pronominal affixes are inserted before the assertive particle a. Thus the affix denoting a direct object of the third person singular is e, and by inserting it in dal-kef-a we arrive at a form dal-ked-e-a, somebody struck him. Similar affixes can be added to denote that the object or subject of an action belongs to somebody. Thus Santali hap&n-in-e dal-ket'-tako-tin-a, son-my-he struck-theirs-mine, my son who belongs to me struck theirs. In a sentence such as har kord-e dal-ked-e-a, man boy-he struck- him, the man struck the boy, the Santals first put together the ideas man, boy, and a striking in the past. Then the e tells us that the striking affects the boy, and finally the -a indicates that the whole action really takes place. It will be seen that a single verbal form in this way often corresponds to a whole sentence or a series of sen- tences in other languages. If we add that the most developed Munda languages possess different bases for the active, the middle and the passive, that there are different causal, intensive and recipro- cal bases, which are conjugated throughout, and that the person of the subject is often indicated in the verb, it will be understood that Munda conjugation presents a somewhat bewildering aspect. It is, however, quite regular throughout, and once the mind becomes accustomed to these peculiarities, they do not present any difficulty to the understanding. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Max Muller, Letter to Chevalier Bunsen on the Classification of the Turanian Languages. Reprint from Chr. K. J. Bunsen, Christianity and Mankind, vol. iii. (London, 1854), especially pp. 175 and sqq.; Friedrich Muller, Grundriss der Sprach- vnssenschaft, vol. iii. part i. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and sqq., vol. iv. part i. (Wien, 1888), p. 229; Sten Konow, Munda and Dravidian Languages " in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, iv. i and teq. (Calcutta, 1906). (S. K.) MUNDAY (or MONDAY), ANTHONY (c. 1553-1633), English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, son of Christopher Monday, a London draper, was born in 1553-1554. He had already appeared on the stage when in 1576 he bound himself apprentice for eight years to John Allde, the stationer, an engagement from which he was speedily released, for in 1578 he was in Rome. In the opening b'nes of his English Romayne Lyfe (1582) he avers that in going abroad he was actuated solely by a desire to see strange countries and to learn foreign languages; but he must be regarded, if not as a spy sent to report on the English Jesuit College in Rome, as a journalist who meant to make literary capital out of the designs of the English Catholics resident in France and Italy. He says that he and his companion, Thomas Nowell, were robbed of all they possessed on the road from Boulogne to Amiens, where they were kindly received by an English priest, who entrusted them with letters to be delivered in Reims. These they handed over to the English ambassador in Paris, where under a false name, as the son of a well-known English Catholic, Munday gained recommendations which secured his reception at the English College in Rome. He was treated with special kindness by the rector, Dr Morris, for the sake of his supposed father. He gives a detailed account of the routine of the place, of the dispute between the English and Welsh students, of the carnival at Rome, and finally of the martyrdom of Richard Atkins (? 1 559-1 581). He returned to England in 1 578-1 579, and became an actor again, being a member of the Earl of Oxford's company between 1579 and 1584. In a Catholic tract entitled A True Reporte of the death of M. Campion (1581), Munday is accused of having deceived his master Allde, a charge which he refuted by publishing Allde's signed declaration to the con- trary, and he is also said to have been hissed off the stage. He was one of the chief witnesses against Edmund Campion and his associates, and wrote about this time five anti-popish pamphlets, among them the savage and bigoted tract entitled A Discoverie of Edmund Campion and his Confederates whereto is added the execution of Edmund Campion, Raphe Sherwin, and Alexander Brian, the first part of which was read aloud from the scaffold at Campion's death in December 1581. His political services against the Catholics were rewarded in 1584 by the post of messenger to her Majesty's chamber, and from this time he seems to have ceased to appear on the stage. In 1 598-1 599, when he travelled with the earl of Pembroke's men in the Low Countries, it was in the capacity of playwright to furbish up old plays. He devoted himself to writing for the booksellers and the theatres, compiling religious works, translating Amadis de Gaule and other French romances, and putting words to popular airs. He was the chief pageant-writer for the City from 1605 M UNDELL A— M UNDT to 1616, and it is likely that he supplied most of the pageants between 1592 and 1605, of which no authentic record has been kept. It is by these entertainments of his, which rivalled in success those of Ben Jonson and Middleton, that he won his greatest fame; but of all the achievements of his versatile talent the only one that was noted in his epitaph in St Stephens, Coleman Street, London, where he was buried on the loth of August 1633, was his enlarged edition (1618) of Stow's Survey of London. In some of his pageants he signs himself " citizen and draper of London," and in his later years he is said to have followed his father's trade. Of the eighteen plays between the dates of 1584 and 1602 which are assigned to Munday in collaboration with Henry Chettle, Michael Dray ton, Thomas Dekker and other dramatists, only four are extant. John a Kent and John a Cumber, dated 1595, is supposed to be the same as Wiseman of West Chester, produced by the Admiral's men at the Rae Theatre on the 2nd of December 1 594. A ballad of British Sidanen, on which it may have been founded, was entered at Stationers' Ha'.l in 1579. The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon, afterwards called Re-bin Hood of merrie Sherwodde (acted in February !599) was followed in the same month by a second part, The Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon (printed 1601), in which he collaborated with Henry Chettle. Munday also had a share with Michael Dray- ton, Robert Wilson and Richard Hathway in the First Part of the history of the life of Sir John Oldcastle (acted 1599), which was printed in 1600, with the name of William Shakespeare, which was speedily withdrawn, on the title page. William Webbe (Discourse of English Poetrie, 1586) praised him for his pastorals, of which there remains only the title, Sweet Sobs and Amorous Complaints of Shep- herds and Nymphs; and Francis Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) gives him among dramatic writers the exaggerated praise of being " our best plotter." Ben Jonson ridiculed him in The Case is Altered as Antonio Balladino, pageant poet. Munday's works usuaUy appeared under his own name, but he sometimes used the pseudonym of " Lazarus Piot." A. H. Bullen identifies him with the Shepherd Tony " who contributed " Beauty sat bathing by a spring " and six other lyrics to England's Helicon (ed. Bullen, 1899, p. 15). The completest account of Anthony Munday is T. Seccombe's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. A life and bibliography are prefixed to the Shakespeare Society s reprint of John a Kent and John a Cumber (ed. J. P. Collier, 1851). His two " Robin Hood " plays were edited by J. P. Collier in Old Plays (1828), and his English Romayne Lyfe was printed in the Harleian Miscellany, vii. 136 seq. (ed. Park, 1811). For an account of his city pageants see F. W. Fairholt, Lord Mayor's Pageants (Percy Soc., No. 38, 1843). MUNDELLA, ANTHONY JOHN (1825-1897), English educa- tional and industrial reformer, of Italian extraction, was born at Leicester in 1825. After a few years spent at an elementary school, he was apprenticed to a hosier at the age of eleven; He afterwards became successful in business in Nottingham, filled several civic offices, and was known for his philanthropy. He was sheriff of Nottingham in 1853, and in 1859 organized the first courts of arbitration for the settlement of disputes between masters and men. In November 1868 he was returned to parliament for Sheffield as an advanced Liberal. He represented that constituency until November 1885, when he was returned for the Brightside division of Sheffield, which he continued to represent until his death. In the Gladstone ministry of 1880 Mundella was vice-president of the council, and shortly after- wards was nominated fourth charity commissioner for England and Wales. In February 1886 he was appointed president of the board of trade, with a seat in the cabinet, and was sworn a member of the privy council. In August 1892, when the Liberals again came into power, Mundella was again appointed president of the board of trade, and he continued in this position until 1894, when he resigned office. His resignation was brought about by his connexion with a financial company which went into liquidation in circumstances calling for the official intervention of the board of trade. However innocent his own connexion with the company was, it involved him in unpleasant public discussion, and his position became untenable. Having made a close study of the educational systems of Germany and Switzerland, Mundella was an early advocate of compulsory education in England. He rendered valuable service in con- nexion with the Elementary Education Act of 1870, and the educational code of 1882, which became known as the " Mundella Code," marked a new departure in the regulation of public elementary schools and the conditions of the Government grants. To his initiative was chiefly due the Factory Act of 1875, which established a ten-hours day for women and children in textile factories; and the Conspiracy Act, which removed certain restrictions on trade unions. It was he also who established the labour department of the board of trade and founded the Labour Gazette. He introduced and passed bills for the better protection of women and children in brickyards and for the limitation of their labours in factories; and he effected substantial improvements in the Mines Regula- tion Bill, and was the author of much other useful legislation. In recognition of his efforts, a marble bust of himself, by Boehm, subscribed for by 80,000 factory workers, chiefly women and children, was presented to Mrs Mundella. He died in London on the 2ist of July 1897. MUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758-1832), English actor, was the son of a London poulterer, and ran away from home to join a strolling company. He had a long provincial experience as actor and manager. His first London appearance was in 1790 at Covent Garden, where he practically remained until 1811, becoming the leading comedian of his day. In 1813 he was at Drury Lane. He retired in 1824, and died on the 6th of February 1832. MUNDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Fulda and the Werra, 21 m. N.E. of Cassel by rail. Pop. (1905), 10,755. It is an ancient place, municipal rights having been granted to it in 1 247. A few ruins of its former walls still survive. The large Lutheran church of St Blasius (i4th-i5th centuries) contains the sarcophagus of Duke Eric of Brunswick-Calenberg (d. 1540). The 13th-century Church of St Aegidius was injured in the siege of 1625-26 but was subsequently restored. There is a new Roman Catholic church (1895). The town hall (1619), and the ducal castle, built by Duke Eric II. about 1570, and rebuilt in 1898, are the principal secular buildings. In the latter is the municipal museum. There are various small industries and a trade in timber. Miinden,often called " Hanno- versch-Munden " (i.e. Hanoverian MUnden), to distinguish it from Prussian Minden, was founded by the landgraves of Thuringia, and passed in 1247 to the house of Brunswick. It was for a time the residence of the dukes of Brunswick-Liineburg. In 1626 it was destroyed by Tilly. See Willigerod, Geschichte von Miinden (Gottingen, 1808); and Henze, Fiihrer durch Miinden und Umgegend (Munden, 1900). MUNDRUCUS, a tribe of South American Indians, one of the most powerful tribes on the Amazon. In 1788 they completely defeated their ancient enemies the Murasi After 1803 they lived at peace with the Brazilians, and many are civilized. MUNDT, THEODOR (1808-1861), German author, was born at Potsdam on the igth of September 1808. Having studied philology and philosophy at Berlin, he settled in 1832 at Leipzig, as a journalist, and was subjected to a rigorous police supervision. In 1839 he married Klara Mtiller (1814-1873), who under the name of Luise Miihlbach became a popular novelist, and he removed in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of entering upon an academical career was for a time thwarted by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however, he was permitted to establish himself as privatdocent. In 1848 he was appointed professor of literature and history in Breslau, and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Berlin; there he died on the 3oth of November 1861. Mundt wrote extensively on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence in his time. Prominent among his works are Die Kunst der deutschen Prosa (1837); Geschichte der Liter atur der Gegerrwart (1840); Aesthetik; die Idee der Schonheit und des Kunstwerks im Lichte unserer Zeit (1845, new ed. 1868); Die Gotterwelt der alien Vdlker (1846, new ed. 1854). He also wrote several historical novels; Thomas Milnzer (1841); Mendoza, der Voter der Schelmen (1847) and Die Matadore (1850). But perhaps Mundt's chief title to fame was his part in the emancipation of women, a theme which he elaborated in his Madonna, Unter- haltungen mil einer Heiligen (1835). MUNICH MUNICH (Ger. Miinchen), a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of Bavaria, and the third largest town in the German Empire. It is situated on an elevated plain, on the river Isar, 25 m. N. of the foot-hills of the Alps, about midway between Strassburg and Vienna. Owing to its lofty site (1700 ft. above the sea) and the proximity of the Alps, the climate is changeable, and its mean annual temperature, 49° to 50° F., is little higher than that of many places much farther to the north. The annual rainfall is nearly 30 in. Munich lies at the centre of an important network of railways connecting it directly with Strassburg (for Paris), Cologne, Leipzig, Berlin, Rosenheim (for Vienna) and Innsbruck (for Italy via the Brenner pass), which converge in a central station. Munich is divided into twenty-four municipal districts, nine- teen of which, including the old town, lie on the left bank of the Isar, while the suburban districts of Au, Haidhausen, Giesing, Bogenhausen and Ramersdorf are on the opposite bank. The old town, containing many narrow and irregular streets, forms a semicircle with its diameter towards the river, while round its periphery has sprung up the greater part of modern Munich, including the handsome Maximilian and Ludwig districts. The walls with which Munich was formerly surrounded have been pulled down, but some of the gates have been left. The most interesting is the Isartor and the Karlstor, restored in 1835 and adorned with frescoes. The Siegestor (or gate of victory) is a modern imitation of the arch of Constantine at Rome, while the stately Propylaea, built in 1854-1862, is a reproduction of the gates of the Athenian Acropolis. Munich owes its architectural magnificence largely to Louis I. of Bavaria, who ascended the throne in 1825, and his successors; while its collections of art entitle it to rank with Dresden and Berlin. Most of the modern buildings have been erected after celebrated prototypes of other countries and eras, so that, as has been said by Moriz Carriere, a walk through Munich affords a picture of the architecture and art of two thousand years. In carrying out his plans Louis I. was seconded by the architect Leo von Klenze, while the external decorations of painting and sculpture were mainly designed by Peter von Cornelius, Wilhelm von Kaulbach and Schwanthaler. As opportunity offers, the narrow streets of the older city are converted into broad, straight boulevards, lined with palatial mansions and public buildings. The hygienic improvement effected by these changes, and by a new and excellent water supply, is shown by the mortality averages — 40-4 per thousand in 1871-1875, 30-4 per thousand in 1881-1885, and 20-5 per thousand in 1903-1904. The archi- tectural style which has been principally followed in the later public buildings, among them the law courts, finished in 1897, the German bank, St Martin's hospital, as well as in numerous private dwellings, is the Italian and French Rococo, or Renais- sance, adapted to the traditions of Munich architecture in the 1 7th and i8th centuries. A large proportion of the most notable buildings in Munich are in two streets, the Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse, the creations of the monarchs whose names they bear. The former, three-quarters of a mile long and 40 yds. wide, chiefly contains buildings in the Renaissance style by Friedrich von Gartner. The most striking of these are the palaces of Duke Max and of Prince Luitpold; the Odeon, a large building for concerts, adorned with frescoes and marble busts; the war office; the royal library, in the Florentine palatial style; the Ludwigskirche, a successful reproduction of the Italian Romanesque style, built in 1829-1844, and containing a huge fresco of the Last Judgment by Cornelius; the blind asylum; and, lastly, the university. At one end this street is terminated by the Siegestor, while at the other is the Feldher- renhalle (or hall of the marshals), a copy of the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence, containing statues of Tilly and Wrede by Schwan- thaler. Adjacent is the church of the Theatines, an imposing though somewhat over-ornamented example of the Italian Rococo style; it contains the royal burial vault. In the Maxi- milianstrasse, which extends from Haidhausen on the right bank of the Isar to the Max- Joseph Platz, King Maximilian II. tried to introduce an entirely novel style of domestic architecture, formed by the combination of older forms. At the east end it is closed by the Maximilianeum, an extensive and imposing edifice, adorned externally with large sculptural groups and internally with huge paintings representing the chief scenes in the history of the world. Descending the street, towards the west are passed in succession the old buildings of the Bavarian national museum, the government buildings in which the Com- posite style of Maximilian has been most consistently carried out, and the mint. On the north side of the Max- Joseph Platz lies the royal palace, consisting of the Alte Residenz, the Konigsbau, and the Festsaalbau. The Alte Residenz dates from 1601 to 1616; its apartments are handsomely fitted up in the Rococo style, and the private chapel and the treasury contain several crowns and many other interesting and valuable objects. The Festsaalbau, erected by Klenze in the Italian Renaissance style, is adorned with mural paintings and sculp- tures, while the Konigsbau, a reduced copy of the Pitti Palace at Florence, contains a series of admirable frescoes from the Niebelungenlied by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld. Adjoining .the palace are two theatres, the Residenz or private theatre, and the handsome Hof theater, accommodating 2500 spectators. The Allerheiligen-Hofkirche, or court-church, is in the Byzantine style, with a Romanesque facade. The Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse both end at no great distance from the Frauenplatz in the centre of the old town. On this square stands the Frauenkirche, the cathedral church of the archbishop of Munich-Freising, with its lofty cupola capped towers dominating the whole town. It is imposing from its size, and interesting as one of the few examples of indigenous Munich art. On the adjacent Marienplatz are the old town- hall, dating from the I4th century and restored in 1865, and the new town-hall, the latter a magnificent modern Gothic erection, freely embellished with statues, frescoes, and stained- glass windows, and enlarged in 1900-1905. The column in the centre of the square was erected in 1638, to commemorate the defeat of the Protestants near Prague by the Bavarians during the Thirty Years' War. Among the other churches of Munich the chief place is due to St Boniface's, an admirable copy of an early Christian basilica. It is adorned with a cycle of religious paintings by Heinrich von Hess (1798-1863), and the dome is supported by sixty- four monoliths of grey Tyrolese marble. The parish church of Au, in the Early Gothic style, contains gigantic stained-glass windows and some excellent wood-carving; and the church of St John in Haidhausen is another fine Gothic structure. St Michael's in the Renaissance style, erected for the Jesuits in 1583-1595, contains the monument of Eugene Beauharnais by Thorwaldsen. The facade is divided into storeys, and the general effect is by no means ecclesiastical. St Peter's is inter- esting as the oldest church in Munich (i2th century), though no trace of the original basilica remains. Among newer churches the most noticeable are the Evangelical church of St Luke, a Transitional building, with an imposing dome, finished in 1896, and the Gothic parochial church of the Giesing suburb, with a tower 312 ft. high and rich interior decorations (1866-1884). The valuable collections of art are enshrined in handsome buildings, mostly in the Maximilian suburb on the north side of the town. The old Pinakothek, erected by Klenze in 1826- 1836, and somewhat resembling the Vatican, is embellished externally with frescoes by Cornelius and with statues of twenty- four celebrated painters from sketches by Schwanthaler. It contains a valuable and extensive collection of pictures by the earlier masters, the chief treasures being the early German and Flemish works and the unusually numerous examples of Rubens. It also affords accommodation to more than 300,000 engravings, over 20,000 drawings, and a large collection of vases. Opposite stands the new Pinakothek, built 1846-1853, the frescoes on which, designed by Kaulbach, show the effects of wind and weather. It is devoted to works by painters of the last century, among which Karl Rottmann's Greek landscapes are perhaps the most important. The Glyptothek, a building by Klenze in the Ionic style, and adorned with several groups and MUNICH single statues, contains a valuable series of sculptures, extending from Assyrian and Egyptian monuments down to works by Thorwaldsen and other modern masters. The celebrated Aeginetan marbles preserved here were found in the island of Aegina in 1811. Opposite the Glyptothek stands the exhibition building, in the Corinthian style, it was finished in 1845, and is used for periodic exhibitions of art. In addition to the museum of plaster casts, the Antiquarium (a collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman antiquities under the roof of the new Pinakothek) and the Maillinger collection, connected with the historical museum, Munich also contains several private galleries. Fore- most among these stand the Schack Gallery, bequeathed by the founder, Count Adolph von Schack, to the emperor William II. in 1894, rich in works by modern German masters, and the Lotzbeck collection of sculptures and paintings. Other struc- tures and institutions are the new buildings of the art association ; the academy of the plastic arts (1874-1885), in the Renaissance style; and the royal arsenal (Zeughaus) with the military museum. The Schwanthaler museum contains models of most of the great sculptor's works. The immense scientific collection in the Bavarian national museum, illustrative of the march of progress from the Roman period down tp the present day, compares in completeness with the similar collections at South Kensington and the Musee de Cluny. The building which now houses this collection was erected in 1894-1900. On the walls is a series of well-executed frescoes of scenes from Bavarian history, occupying a space of 16,000 sq. ft. The ethnographical museum, the cabinet of coins, and the collections of fossils, minerals, and physical and optical instruments, are also worthy of mention. The art union, the oldest and roost extensive in Germany, possesses a good collection of modern works. The chief place among the scientific institutions is due to the academy of science, founded in 1759. The royal library contains over 1,300,000 printed volumes and 30,000 manuscripts. The observatory is equipped with instruments by the celebrated Josef Fraunhofer. At the head of the educational institutions of Munich stands the university, founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, removed to Landshut in 1800, and transferred thence to Mumch in 1826. In addition to the four usual faculties there is a fifth — of political economy. In connexion with the university are medical and other schools, a priests' seminary, and a library of 300,000 volumes. The polytechnic institute (Technische Hochschule) in 1899 acquired the privilege of conferring the degree of doctor of technical science. Munich contains several gymnasia or grammar-schools, a military academy, a veterinary college, an agricultural college, a school for architects and builders, and several other technical schools, and a conservatory of music. The general prison in the suburb of Au is considered a model of its kind; and there is also a large military prison. Among other public buildings, the crystal palace (Glas-palast), 765 ft. in length, erected for the great exhibition of 1854, is now used, as occasion requires, for temporary exhibitions. The Wittelsbach palace, built in 1843-1850, in the Early English Pointed style, is one of the residences of the royal family. Among the numerous monuments with which the squares and streets are adorned, the most important are the colossal statue of Maximilian II. in the Maximilianstrasse, the equestrian statues of Louis I. and the elector Maximilian I., the obelisk erected to the 30.000 Bavarians who perished in Napoleon's expedition to Moscow, the Wittelsbach fountain (1895), the monument commemorative of -the peace of 1871, and the marble statue of Justus Liebig, the chemist, set up in 1883. The English garden (Englischer Garten), to the north-east of the town, is 600 acres in extent, and was laid out by Count Rumford in imitation of an English park. On the opposite bank of the Isar, above and below the Maximilianeum, extend the Gasteig promenades, commanding fine views of the town. To the south-west of the town is the Theresienwiese, a large common where the popular festival is celebrated in October. Here is situated the Ruhmeshalle or hall of fame, a Doric colonnade containing busts of eminent Bavarians. In front of it is a colossal bronze statue of Bavaria, 170 ft. high, designed by Schwanthaler. The botanical garden, with its large palm-house, the Hofgarten, surrounded with arcades containing frescoes of Greek landscapes by Rottmann, and the Maximilian park to the east of the Isar, complete the list of public parks. The population of Munich in 1905 was 538,393. The per- manent garrison numbers about 10,000 men. Of the population, 84% are Roman Catholic, 14% Protestants, and 2% Jews. Munich is the seat of the archbishop of Munich-Freising and of the general Protestant consistory for Bavaria. About twenty newspapers are published here, including the Allgemeine Zeitung. Some of the festivals of the Roman Church are cele- brated with considerable pomp; and the people also cling to various national fetes, such as the Metzgersprung, the Schaffler- tanz, and the great October festival. Munich has long been celebrated for its artistic handicrafts, such as bronze-founding, glass- staining, silversmith's work, and wood-carving, while the astronomical instruments of Fraunhofer and the mathematical instruments of Traugott Lieberecht von Ertel (1778-1858) are also widely known. Lithography, which was invented at Munich at the end of the i8th century, is extensively practised here. The other industrial products include wall-paper, railway plant, machinery, gloves and artificial flowers. The most characteristic industry, however, is brewing. Four important markets are held at Munich annually. The city is served by an extensive electric tramway system. History. — The Villa Munichen or Forum ad monachos, so called from the monkish owners of the ground on which it lay, was first called into prominence by Duke Henry the Lion, who established a mint here in 1158, and made it the emporium for the salt coming from Hallein and Reichenhall. The Bavarian dukes of the Wittelsbach house occasionally resided at Munich, and in 1255 Duke Louis made it his capital, having previously surrounded it with walls and a moat. The town was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1327, after which the emperor Louis the Bavarian, in recognition of the loyalty of the citizens, rebuilt it very much on the scale it retained down to the beginning of the 1 9th century. Among the succeeding rulers those who did most for the town in the erection of handsome buildings and the foundation of schools and scientific institutions were Albert V., William V., Maximilian I., Max Joseph and Charles Theodore. In 1632 Munich was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1705, and again in 1742, it was in possession of the Austrians. In 1791 the fortifications were razed. Munich's importance in the' history of art is entirely of modern growth, and may be dated from the acquisition of the Aeginetan marbles by Louis I., then crown prince, in 1812. Among the eminent artists of this period whose names are more or less identified with Munich were Leo von Klenze (1784-1864), Joseph Daniel Ohlmiiller (1791-1839), Friedrich von Gartner (1792-1847), and Georg Friedrich Ziebland (1800-1873), the architects; Peter von Cornelius (1783-1867), Wilhelm von Kaul- bach (1804-1874), Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794-1872), and Karl Rottmann, the painters; and Ludwig von Schwanthaler, the sculptor. Munich is still the leading school of painting in Germany, but the romanticism of the earlier masters has been abandoned for drawing and colouring of a realistic character. Karl von Piloty (1826-1886) and Wilhelm Diez (1839-1907) long stood at the head of this school. See Mittheilungcn de.s statistischen Bureaus der Stadt Munchen (vols. i.-v., 1875-1882); Sold, Munchen mil seinen Umgebungen (1854); Reber, Bautechnischer Fiihrer durch die Stadt Munchen (1876) ; Daniel, Handbuch der Geographic (new ed., 1895); Prantl, Geschichte der Ludwig- Maximilians Universitat (Munich, 1872); Goering, 30 Jahre Munchen (Munich, 1904); von Ammon, Die Gegend von Munchen §sologisch geschildert (Munich, 1895); Kronegg, Illustrierte Geschichte er Stadt Munchen (Munich, 1903); the Jahrbuch fur Munchener Geschichte, edited by Reinhardstottner and Trautmann (Munich, 1887-1894); Aufleger and Trautmann, Alt-Miinchen in Bild und Wort (Munich, 1895) ; Rohmeder, Munchen als Handelsstadt (Munich, 1905); H. Tinsch, Das Stadtrecht von Munchen (Bamberg, 1891); F. Pecht, Geschichte der munchener Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert (Munich, 1888) ; and Trautwein, Fiihrer durch Munchen (2Othed., 1906). There is an English book on Munich by H..R. Wadleigh (1910). MUNICIPALITY— MUNICIPIUM MUNICIPALITY, a modern term (derived from Lat. muni- cipium; see below), now used both for a city or town which is organized for self-government under a municipal corporation, and also for the governing body itself. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, and of superior members, as aldermen and councillors, together with the simple corporators, who are represented by the governing body; it acts as a person by its common seal, and has a perpetual succession, with power to hold lands subject to the restrictions of the Mortmain laws; and it can sue or be sued. Where necessary for its primary objects, every corporation has power to make by-laws and to enforce them by penalties, provided they are not unjust or unreasonable or otherwise inconsistent with the objects of the charter or other instrument of foundation. See BOROUGH, COMMUNE, CORPORATION, LOCAL GOVERNMENT, FINANCE, &c., and for details of the functions of the municipal government see the sections under the general headings of the different countries and the sections on the history of these countries. MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to take), in ancient Rome, the term applied primarily to a status, a certain relation between individuals or communities and the Roman state; subsequently and in ordinary usage to a com- munity, standing in such a relation to Rome. Whether the name signifies the taking up of burdens or the acceptance of privileges is a disputed point. But as ancient authorities are unanimous in giving munus in this connexion the sense of " duty " or " service," it is probable that the chief feature of municipality was the performance of certain services to Rome.1 This view is confirmed by all that we know about the towns to which the name was applied in republican times. The status had its origin in the conferment of citizenship upon Tusculum in 381 B.C. (Livy vi. 26; cf. Cic. pro Plane. 8, 19), and was widely extended in the settlement made by Rome at the close of the Latin War in 338 B.C. (see ROME, History). Italian towns were then divided into three classes: (i) Coloniae civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of citizen- ship; (2) municipia, which received partial citizenship; (3) foeder- alae civitates (including the so-called Latin colonies), which remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by treaty (foedus). The munitipia stood in very different degrees of dependence on Rome. Some, such as Fundi (Livy viii. 14; cf. ibid. 19), enjoyed a local self-government only limited in the matter of jurisdiction; others, such as Anagnia (Livy ix. 43; Festus, de verb, signification, s.v. " municipium," p. 127, ed. Muller), were governed directly from Rome. But they all had certain features in common. Their citizens were called upon to pay the same dues and perform the same service in the legions as full Roman citizens, but were deprived of the chief privileges of citizenship, those of voting in the Comitia (jus suffragii), and of holding Roman magistracies (jus honorum). It would also appear from Festus (op. cit. s.v. praefectura, p. 233) that juris- diction was entrusted in every municipium to praefecti juri dicundo sent out from Rome to represent the Praetor Urbanus.2 The conferment of municipality can therefore hardly have been regarded as other than an imposing of burdens, even in the case of those cities which retained control of their own affairs. But after the close of the second Punic War, when Rome had become the chief power, not only in Italy, but in all the neigh- bouring lands round the Mediterranean, we can trace a growing tendency among the Italian cities to regard citizenship of this great state as a privilege, and to claim complete citizenship as a reward of their services in helping to build up the Roman power. During the 2nd century B.C. the jus suffragii and jus honorum were conferred upon numerous municipia (Livy xxxviii. 36, 37), whose citizens were then enrolled in the Roman tribes. They can have exercised their public rights but seldom, owing to their distance from Rome; but the consulships of C. Marius, 1 For a contrary view, however, see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverw. i. p. 26, n. 2 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881), and authorities there cited. 1 For a different view see Willems, Droit public romain, p. 381 (Louvain, 1874). a municeps of Arpinum (between 107 and 100 B.C.), and the strength of the support given to Tiberius Gracchus in the assembly by the voters from Italian towns (133 B.C.) show what an important influence the members of these municipia could occasionally exercise over Roman politics. The cities thus privileged, however, though receiving complete Roman citizen- ship, were not, as the logic of public law might seem to demand, incorporated in Rome, but continued to exist as independent urban units; and this anomaly survived in the municipal system which was developed, on the basis of these grants of citizen- ship, after the Social War. That system recognized the municeps as at once a citizen of a self-governing city community, and a member of the city of Rome, his dual capacity being illustrated by his right of voting both in the election of Roman magistrates and in the election of magistrates for his cwn town. The result of the Social War which broke out in 91 B.C. (see ROME: History) was the establishment of a new uniform municipality throughout Italy, and the obliteration of any important distinction between the three classes established after the Latin War. By the Lex Julia of 90 B.C. and the Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C. every town in Italy which made application in due form received the complete citizenship. The term municipium was no longer confined to a particular class of Italian towns but was adopted as a convenient name for all urban communities of Roman citizens in Italy. The organization of a municipal system, which should regulate the governments of all these towns on a uniform basis, and define their relation to the Roman government, was probably the work of Sulla, who certainly gave great impetus to the foundation in the provinces of citizen colonies, which were the earliest municipia outside Italy, and enjoyed the same status as the Italian towns. Julius Caesar extended the sphere of the Roman municipal system by his enfranchisement of Cisalpine Gaul, and the consequent inclusion of all the towns of that region in the category of municipia. He seems also to have given a more definite organization to the municipia as a whole. But, excepting those in Cisalpine Gaul, the municipal system still embraced no towns outside Italy other than the citizen colonies. Augustus and his successors adopted the practice of granting to existing towns in the provinces either the full citizenship, or a partial ciiritas known as the jus Latii. This partial civitas does not seem to have been entirely replaced, as in Italy, by the grant of full privileges to the communities possessing it, and the distinction survived for some time in the provinces between coloniae, municipia juris Romani, and municipia juris Latini. But the uniform system of administration gradually adopted in all three classes rendered the distinction entirely unimportant, and the general term municipium is used of all alike. The incorporation of existing towns, hitherto non-Roman, in the uniform municipal system of the principate took place mainly in the eastern part of the Empire, where Greek civiliza- tion had long fostered urban life. In the west city commu- nities rapidly sprang up under direct Roman influence. The development of towns of the municipal type on the sites where legions occupied permanent quarters can be traced in several of the western provinces; and it cannot be doubted that this development became the rule wherever a body of Roman subjects settled down together for any purpose and permanently occupied a region. At any rate by the end of the ist century of the principate municipia are numerous in the western as well as the eastern half of the Empire, and the towns are every- where centres of Roman influence. Of the internal life of the municipia very little is known before the Empire. For the period after Julius Caesar, however, we have two important sources of information. A series of municipal laws gives us a detailed knowledge of the constitution imposed, with slight variations, on all the municipia; and a host of private inscriptions gives particulars of their social life. The municipal constitution of the ist century of the principate is based upon the type of government common to Greece and Rome from earliest times. , The government of each town consists of magistrates, senate and assembly, and is entirely 8 MUNICIPIUM independent of the Roman government except in certain cases of higher civil jurisdiction, which come under the direct cog- nisance of the praetor urbanus at Rome. On the other hand, each community is bound to perform certain services to the Imperial government, such as the contribution of men and horses for military service, the maintenance of the imperial post through its neighbourhood, and the occasional entertain- ment of Roman officials or billeting of soldiers. The citizens were of two classes: (i) cives, whether by birth, naturalization or emancipation, (2) incolae, who enjoyed a partial citizenship based on domicile for a certain period. Both classes were liable to civic burdens, but the incolae had none of the privi- leges of citizenship except a limited right of voting. The citizens were grouped in either tribes or curiae, and accordingly the assembly sometimes bore the name of Comitia Tributa, sometimes that of Comitia Curiata. The theoretical powers of these comitia were extensive both in the election of magis- trates and in legislation. But the growing influence of the senate over elections on the one hand, and on the other hand the increasing reluctance of leading citizens to become candidates for office (see below), gradually made popular election a mere form. The senatorial recommendation of the necessary number of candidates seems to have been merely ratified in the comitia; and a Spanish municipal law of the ist century makes special provision for occasions on which an insufficient number of candidates are forthcoming. In Italy, however, the reality of popular elections seems to have survived to a later date. The inscriptions at Pompeii, for instance, give evidence of keenly contested elections in the 2nd century. The local senate, or curia, always exercised an important influence on municipal politics. Its members formed the local nobility, and at an early date special privileges were granted by Rome to provincials who were senators in their native towns. For the composition, powers, and history of the provincial senate see DECURIO. The magistrates were elected annually, and were six in number, forming three pairs of colleagues. The highest magistrates were the Ilviri (Duoviri) juri dicundo, who had charge, as their name implies, of all local jurisdiction, and presided over the assembly. Candidates for this office were required to be over 25 years of age, to have held one of the minor magistracies, and to possess all the qualifications required of members of the local senate (see DECURIO). Next in dignity were the Hviri aediles, who had charge -of the roads and public buildings, the games and the corn-supply, and exercised police control through- out the town. They appear to have been regarded as sub- ordinate colleagues (collegae minores) of the Hviri juri dicundo, and in some towns at least to have had the right to convene and preside over the comitia in the absence of the latter. Indeed many inscriptions speak of IVviri (Quatluorviri) consisting of two IVviri juri dicundo and two IVviri aediles; but in the majority of cases the former are regarded as distinct and superior magistrates. The two quaestores, who appear to have controlled finance in a large number of municipia, cannot be traced in others; and it is probable that in the municipia, as at Rome, the quaestorship was locally instituted, as need arose, to relieve the supreme magistrates of excessive business. Other municipal magistrates frequently referred to in the inscriptions are the quinquennales and praefecti. The quinquennales super- seded the Ilviri or IVviri juri dicundo every five years, and differed from them only in possessing, in addition to their other powers, those exercised in Rome before the time of Sulla by the censors. Two classes of praefecti are found in the municipalities under the Empire, both of which are to be distinguished from the officials who bore that name in the municipia before the Social War. The first class consists of those praefecti who were nominated as temporary delegates by the Ilviri, when through illness or compulsory absence they were unable to discharge the duties of their office. The second class, referred to in inscriptions by the name of praefecti ab decurionibus creati lege Petronia, seem to have been appointed by the local senate in case of a complete absence of higher magistrates, such as would have led in Rome to the appointment of an interrex. From a social point of view the municipia of the Roman Empire may be treated under three heads: (i) as centres of local self- government, (2) as religious centres, (3) as industrial centres, (i) The chief feature of the local government of the towns is the wide- spread activity of the municipal authorities in improving the general conditions of life in the town. In the municipalities, as in Rome, provision was made out of the public funds for feeding the poorest Eart of the population, and providing a supply of corn which could e bought Dy ordinary citizens at a moderate price. In Pliny's time there existed in many towns public schools controlled by the municipal authorities, concerning which Pliny remarks that they were a source of considerable disturbance in the town at the times when it was necessary to appoint teachers. He himself encouraged the establishment of another kind of municipal school at Como, where the leading townspeople subscribed for the maintenance of the school, and the control, including the appointment of teachers, remained in the hands of the subscribers. Physicians seem to have been maintained in many towns at the public expense. The water- supply was also provided out of the municipal budget, and controlled by magistrates, appointed for the purpose. To enable it to bear the expense involved in all these undertakings, the local treasury was generally assisted by large benefactions, either in money or in works, from individual citizens; but direct taxation for municipal purposes was hardly ever resorted to. The treasury was filled out of the Eroceeds of the landed possessions of the community, especially such •uitful sources of revenue as mines and quarries, and out of import and export duties. It was occasionally subsidized by the emperor on occasions of sudden and exceptional calamity. 2. The chief feature in the religious life of the towns was the important position they occupied as centres for the cult of the emperor. Caesar-worship as an organized cult developed sponta- neously in many provincial towns during the reign of Augustus, and was fostered by him and his successors as a means of promoting in these centres of vigour and prosperity a strong loyalty to Rome and the emperor, which was one of the firmest supports of the latter's power. The order of Augustales, officials appointed to regulate the worship of the emperor in the towns, occupied a position of dignity and importance in provincial society. It was composed of the lead- ing and the wealthiest men among the lower classes of the popula- tion. By the organization of the order on these lines Augustus secured the double object of maintaining Caesar-worship in all the most vigorous centres of provincial life, and attracting to himself and his successors the special devotion of the industrial class which had its origin in the municipia of the Roman Empire, and has become the greatest political force in modern Europe. 3. The development of this free industrial class is the chief feature of the municipia considered as centres of industry and handicraft. The rise to power of the equestrian order in Rome during the last century of the Republic had to some extent modified the old Roman principle that trade and commerce were beneath the dignity of the governing class; but long after the fall of the Republic the aristo- cratic notion survived in Rome that industry and handicrafts were only fit for slaves. In the provincial towns, however, this idea was rapidly disappearing in the early years of the Empire, and even in the country towns of Italy the inscriptions give evidence not much later of the existence of a large and nourishing free industrial class, proud of its occupation, and bound together by a strong esprit de corps. Already the members of this class show a strong tendency to bind themselves together in gilds (collegia, sodalitates) , and the existence of countless associations of the kind is revealed by the inscriptions. The formation of societies for religious and other purposes was frequent at Rome from the earliest times in all classes of the free population. After the time of Sulla these societies were regarded by the government with suspicion, mainly on account of the political uses to which they were turned, and various measures were passed for their suppression in Rome and Italy. This policy was continued by the early emperors and extended to the whole Empire, but in spite of opposition the gilds in the provincial towns grew and flourished. The ostensible objects of nearly all such collegia of which we have any knowledge were twofold, the maintenance of the worship of some god, and provision for the performance of proper funerary rights for its members. But under cover of these two main objects, the only two purposes for which such combinations were allowed under the Empire, associations of all kinds grew up. The organization of the gilds was based on that of the municipality. Each elected its officers and treasurers at an annual meeting, and every five years a revision of the list of members was held, correspond- ing to that of the senators held quinquennially by the city magis- trates. It is doubtful how far these societies served to organize and improve particular industries. There is no evidence to show that any societies during the first three centuries consisted solely of workers at a single craft. But there can be little doubt that the later craft gilds were a development, through the industrial gilds of the provincial towns, of one of the most ancient features of Roman life. Remarkable concord seems generally to have existed in the municipia between the various classes of the population. This is accounted for partly by the strong civic feeling which formed a bond of unity stronger than most sources of friction, and MUNIMENT— MUNKACS partly to the general prosperity of the towns, which removed any acute discontent. The wealthy citizen seems always to have had to bear heavy financial burdens, and to have enjoyed in return a dignity and an actual political preponderance which made the general character of municipal constitutions distinctly timocratic. The policy adopted by the early emperors of encouraging, within the limits of a uniform system, the independence and civic patriotism of the towns, was superseded in the 3rd and 4th centuries by a deliberate effort to use the towns as instru- ments of the imperial government, under the direct control of the emperor or his representatives in the provinces. This policy was accompanied by a gradual decay of civic feeling and municipal enterprise, which showed itself mainly in the un- willingness of the townsmen to become candidates for local magistracies, or to take up the burdens entailed in membership of the municipal senate. Popular control of the local government of the towns was ceasing to be a reality as early as the end of the ist century of the Empire. Two centuries later local government was a mere form. And the self-governing com- munities of the middle ages were a restoration, rather than a development, of the flourishing and independent municipalities of the age of Augustus and his immediate successors. AUTHORITIES. — C. Bruns, Fontes juris romani, c. III., No. 18, and c. IV. (Freiburg, 1893), for Municipal Laws and references to Mommsen's commentary in C.I.L. ; E. Kuhn, Stadtische u. burgerliche Verfasxung des rom. Reichs (Leipzig, 1864): Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, I. i. (Leipzig, 1881); Toutain. in Daremberg- Saglio Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques el romaines, s.v. " Munici- pium "; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, c. 2 and 3 (London, 1904). For the gilds see Mommsen, De collegiis el sodaliciis Romanorum (Keil, 1843); Liebenam, Geschichte u. Organi- sation des rom. Vereinswesens (Leipzig, 1890). (A. M. CL.) MUNIMENT, a word chiefly used in the plural, as a collective term for the documents, charters, title-deeds, &c. relating to the property, rights and privileges of a coiporation, such as a college, a family or private person, and kept as " evidences " for defending the same. Hence the medieval usage of the word munimenlum, in classical Latin, a defence, fortification, from munire, to defend. MUNI RIVER SETTLEMENTS, or SPANISH GUINEA, a Spanish protectorate on the Guinea Coast, West Africa, rectangular in form, with an area of about 9800 sq. m. and an estimated population of 150,000. The protectorate extends inland about 125 miles and is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the German colony of Cameroon, E. and S. by French Congo. The coast- line, 75 m. long, stretches from the mouth of the Campo in 2° 10' N. to the mouth of the Muni in i° N., on the north arm of Corisco Bay. The small islands of Corisco ((?.».), Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico and Bana in Corisco Bay also belong to Spain. From the estuary of the Campo the coast trends S.S.W. in a series of shallow indentations, until at the bold bluff of Cape San Juan it turns eastward and forms Corisco Bay. The coast plain, from 12 to 25 m. wide, is succeeded by the foot-hills of the Crystal Mountains, which traverse the country in a north to south direction. These are a table-land, from which rise granitic hills 700 to 1200 ft. above the geueral level, which is about 2500 ft. above the sea. The mountainous region, which extends inland beyond the Spanish frontier, contains many narrow valleys and marshy depressions. The greater part of the country forms the basin of the river Benito, which, rising in French Congo a little east of the frontier, flows through the centre of the Spanish protectorate and enters the sea, after a course of 300 m., about midway between the Campo and Muni estuaries. The southern bank of the lower course of the Campo and the northern bank of the lower course of the Muni, form part of the protectorate. The mouths of the Campo and Benito are obstructed by sand bars, whereas the channel leading to the Muni is some 36 ft. deep and the river itself is more than double that depth. It is from this superiority of access that the country has been named after the Muni River. The course of all the rivers is obstructed by rapids in their descent from the table-land to the plain. The greater part of the country is covered with dense primeval forest. This forest growth is due to the fertility of the soil and the great rainfall, Spanish Guinea with the neighbouring Cameroon country possessing one of the heaviest rain records of the world. The humidity of the climate joined to the excessive heat (the average tempera- ture is 78° F.) makes the climate trying. In the eastern parts of the protectorate the forest is succeeded by more open country. Among the most common trees are oil-palms, rubber-trees, ebony and mahogany. The forests are the home of monkeys and of innumerable birds and insects, often of gorgeous colouring. In the north-east of the country elephants are numerous. The inhabitants are Bantu-Negroid, the largest tribe repre- sented being the Fang (q.v.), called by the Spaniards Pamues. They are immigrants from the Congo basin and have pushed before them the tribes, such as the Benga, which now occupy the coast-lands. The villages of the Fang are usually placed on the top of small hills. They cultivate the yam, banana and manioc, and are expert fishers and hunters. The European settlements are confined to the coast. There are trading stations at the mouths of the Campo, Benito and Muni rivers, at Bata, midway between the Campo and Benito, and on Elobey Chico. There are cocoa, coffee and other plantations, but the chief trade is in natural products, rubber, palm oil and palm kernels, and timber. Cotton goods and alcohol are the principal imports. Trade is largely in the hands of British and German firms. The annual value of the trade in 1903-1906 was about £100,000. Spain became possessed of Fernando Po at the end of the i8tb century, and Spanish traders somewhat later established " factories " on the neighbouring coasts' of the mainland, but no permanent occupation appears to have been contemplated. During the igth century a number of treaties were concluded betv/een Spanish naval officers and the chiefs of the lower Guinea coast, and when the partition of Africa was in progress Spain laid claim to the territory between the Campo river and the Gabun. Germany and France also claimed the territory, but in 1885 Germany withdrew in favour of France. After protracted negotiations between France and Spain a treaty was signed in June 1900 by which France acknowledged Spanish sovereignty over the coast region between the Campo and Muni rivers and the hinterland as far east as 11° 20' E. of Greenwich, receiving in return concessions from Spain in the Sahara (see Rio DE ORC), and the right of pre-emption over Spain's West African possessions. In 1901-1902 the eastern frontier was delimited, being modified in accordance with natural features. The newly acquired territories were placed under the superintendence of the governor-general of Fernando Po, sub-governors being stationed at Bata, Elobey Chico and Corisco. See R. Beltran y R6zpide, La Guinea espanola (Madrid, 1901), and Guinea continental espanola (Madrid, 1903); H. Lorin, "Lea colonies espagnoles du golfe de Guinee " in Quest, dip. et col., vol. xxi. (1906); E. L. Perea, " Estado actual de los territories espafioles de Guinea " in Revisia de geog. colon, y mercantil (Madrid, 1905) ; J. B. Roche, Aupays des Pahouins (Paris, 1904). A good map compiled by E. d'Almonte on the scale of 1 :2oo,ooo was published in Madrid in 1903. Consult also the works cited under FERNANDO Po. MUNKACS, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bereg, 220 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,640. It is situated on the Latorcza river, and on the outskirts of the East Beskides mountains, where the hills touch the plains. Its most noteworthy buildings are the Greek Catholic cathedral and the beautiful castle of Count Schonborn. In the vicinity, on a steep hill 580 ft. high, stands the old fort of Munkacs, which played an important part in Hungarian history, and was especially famous for its heroic defence by Helene Zrinyi, wife of Emeric Tokoli and mother of Francis Rakoczy II., for three years against the Austrians (1685-1688). It was afterwards used as a prison. Ypsilanti, the hero of Greek liberty, and Kazinczy, the regenerator of Hungarian letters, were confined in it. According to tradition, it was near Munkacs that the Hungarians, towards the end of the gth century, entered the country. In 1896 in the fort was built one of the " millennial 10 MUNKACSY— MUNRO, R. monuments " established at seven different points of the kingdom. MUNKACSY, MICHAEL VON (1844-1900), Hungarian painter, whose real name was MICHAEL (MISKA) LEO LIEB, was the third son of Michael Lieb, a collector of salt-tax in Munkacs, Hungary, and of Cacilia Rock. He was born in that town on the 2oth of February 1844. In 1848 his father was arrested at Miskolcz for complicity in the Hungarian revolution, and died shortly after his release; a little earlier he had also lost his mother, and became dependent upon the charity of relations, of whom an uncle, Rock, became mainly responsible for his maintenance and education. He was apprenticed to a carpenter, Langi, in 1855, but shortly afterwards made the acquaintance of the painters Fischer and Szamossy, whom he accompanied to Arad in 1858. From them he received his first real instruction in art. He worked mainly at Budapest during 1863-1865, and at this time first adopted, from patriotic motives, the name by which he is always known. In 1865 he visited Vienna, returning to Budapest in the following year, and went thence to Munich, where he contributed a few drawings to the Fliegende Blatter. About the end of 1867 he was working at Dusseldorf, where he was much influenced by Ludwig Knaus, and painted (1868- 1869) his first picture of importance, " The Last Day of a Condemned Prisoner," which was exhibited in the Paris Salon in 1870, and obtained for him a mMaille unique and a very considerable reputation. He had already paid a short visit to Paris in 1867, but on the 25th of January 1872 he took up his permanent abode in that city, and remained there during the rest of his working life. Munkacsy's other chief pictures are " Milton dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters " (Paris Exhibition, 1878), " Christ before Pilate " (1881), " Golgotha " (1883), " The Death of Mozart " (1884), " Arpad, chief of the Magyars, taking possession of Hungary," painted for the new House of Parliament in Budapest, and exhibited at the Salon in 1893, and " Ecce Homo." He had hardly completed the latter work when a malady of the brain overtook him, and he died on the 3Oth of April 1900, at Endenich, near Bonn. Just before his last illness he had been offered the directorship of the Hungarian State Gallery at Budapest. Munkacsy's masterly characterization, force and power of dramatic composition secured him a great vogue for his works, but it is doubtful if his reputation will be maintained at the level it reached during his lifetime. " Christ before Pilate " and " Golgotha " were sold for £32,000 and £35,000 respectively to an American buyer. Munkacsy received the following awards for his work exhibited at Paris: Medal, 1870, Medal, 2nd class; Legion of Honour, 1877; Medal of Honour, 1878; Officer of the Legion, 1878; Grand Prix, Exhibition of 1889; Commander of the Legion, 1889. See F. Walther Ilges, " M. von Munkacsy," Kiinstler Mono- graphieji (1899); C. Sedelmeyer, Christ before Pilate (Paris, 1886); I. Beavington Atkinson, " Michael Munkacsy," Magazine of Art (1881). (E. F. S.) MtiNNICH, BURKHARD CHRISTOPH, COUNT (1683-1767), Russian soldier and statesman, was born at Neuenhuntorf, in Oldenburg, in 1683, and at an early age entered the French service. Thence he transferred successively to the armies of Hesse-Darmstadt and of Saxony, and finally, with the rank of general-in-chief and the title of count, he joined the army of Peter II. of Russia. In 1732 he became field-marshal and president of the council of war. In this post he did good service in the re-organization of the Russian army, and founded the cadet corps which was destined to supply the future genera- tions of officers. In 1 734 he took Danzig, and with 1 736 began the Turkish campaigns which made Munnich's reputation as a soldier. Working along the shores of the Black Sea from the Crimea, he took Ochakov after a celebrated siege in 1737, and in 1739 won the battle of Stavutschina, and took Khotin (or Choczim), and established himself firmly in Moldavia. Marshal Miinnich now began to take an active part in political affairs, the particular tone of which was given by his rivalry with Biron, or Bieren, duke of Courland. But his activity was brought to a close by the revolution of 1741; he was arrested on his way to the frontier, and condemned to death. Brought out for execution, and withdrawn from the scaffold, he was later sent to Siberia, where he remained fcr several years, until the accession of Peter III. brought about his release in 1762. Catherine II., who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feld- marschall Miinnich was a fine soldier of the professional type, and many future commanders, notably Louden and Lacy, served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a statesman he is regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism. He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name. He wrote an £bauche pour donner une idee de la forme de V empire "~e Russie (Leipzig, 1774), and his voluminous diaries have appeared in various publications — Herrmann, Beitrage zur Geschichte des russi- schen Reichs (Leipzig. 1843). See Hempel, Leben Miinnichs (Bremen. 1742); Halem, Geschichte des F. M. Grafen Miinnich (Oldenburg^ 1803 ; 2nd ed., 1838) ; Kostomarov, Feldmarschall Miinnich (Russische Geschichte inBiographien,v. 2). MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805), British general, son of Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was born in 1726, and entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in command of the Sgth regiment, and in that year effected the surrender of Mahe from the French. Later, when in command of the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna, and on the 23rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P. for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1780 he was defeated by Hyder Ali near Conjeeveram, and forced to fall back on St Thomas's Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died on the 27th of December 1805. MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONS (1810-1885), British scholar, was born at Elgin on the igth of October 1819. He was educated at Shrewsbury school, where he was one of Kennedy's first pupils, and proceeded to Trinity College, Cam- bridge, in 1838. He became scholar of his college in 1840, second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly-founded chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The great work on which his reputation is mainly based is his edition of Lucretius, the fruit of the labour of many years (text only, i vol., 1860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols., 1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and his judgment unrivalled; and he made close archaeological studies by frequent travels in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction, illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by C. W. King. His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contri- butions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, Sabrinae corolla, are among the most remarkable of a remarkable collec- tion. His Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, they are characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease to be idiomatic. He died at Rome on the 3Oth of March 1885. See Memoir by J. D. Duff, prefixed to a re-issue of the trans, of Lucretius in " Bohn's Classical Library " ('908). MUNRO, MONEO or MONROE, ROBERT (d. c. 1680), Scots general, was a member of a well-known family in Ross-shire, the Munroes of Foulis. With several of his kinsmen he served in the continental wars under Gustavus Adolphus; and he MUNRO, SIR T.— MUNSTER ii appears to have returned to Scotland about 1638, and to have taken some part in the early incidents of the Scottish rebellion against Charles I. In 1642 he went to Ireland, nominally as second in command under Alexander Leslie, but in fact in chief command of the Scottish contingent against the Catholic rebels. After taking and plundering Newry in April 1642, and ineffec- tually attempting to subdue Sir Phelim O'Neill, Munro succeeded in taking prisoner the earl of Antrim at Dunluce. The arrival of Owen Roe O'Neill in Ireland strengthened the cause of the rebels (see O'NEILL), and Munro, who was poorly supplied with provisions and war materials, showed little activity. Moreover, the civil war in England was now creating confusion among parties in Ireland, and the king was anxious to come to terms with the Catholic rebels, and to enlist them on his own behalf against the parliament. The duke of Ormonde, Charles's lieutenant- general in Ireland, acting on the king's orders, signed a cessation of hostilities with the Catholics on the isth of September 1643, and exerted himself to despatch aid to Charles in England. Munro in Ulster, holding his commission from the Scottish parliament, did not recognize the armistice, and his troops accepted the solemn league and covenant, in which they were joined by many English soldiers who left Ormonde to join him. In April 1644 the English parliament entrusted Munro with the command of all the forces in Ulster, both English and Scots. He thereupon seized Belfast, made a raid into the Pale, and unsuccessfully attempted to gain possession of Dundalk and Drogheda. His force was weakened by the necessity for sending troops to Scotland to withstand Montrose; while Owen Roe O'Neill was strengthened by receiving supplies from Spain and the pope. On the sth of June 1646 was fought the battle of Benburb, on the Blackwater, where O'Neill routed Munro, but suffered him to withdraw in safety to Carrickfergus. In 1647 Ormonde was compelled to come to terms with the English parliament, who sent commissioners to Dublin in June of that year. The Scots under Munro refused to surrender Carrick- fergus and Belfast when ordered by the parliament to return to Scotland, and Munro was superseded by the appointment of Monk to the chief command in Ireknd. In September 1648 Carrickfergus was delivered over to Monk by treachery, and Munro was taken prisoner. He was committed to the Tower of London, where he remained a prisoner for five years. In 1654 he was permitted by Cromwell to reside in Ireland, where he had estates in right of his wife, who was the widow of Viscount Montgomery of Ardes. Munro continued to live quietly near Comber, Co. Down, for many years, and probably died there about 1680. He was in part the original of Dugald Dalgetty in Sir Walter Scott's Legend of Montrose. See Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford, 1851); Sir J. T. Gilbert, Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland 1641-1652 (3 vols., Dublin, 1879-1880) and History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (7 vols., Dublin, 1882-1891); John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in Scotland and England (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1850); The Montgomery MSS., 1603-1703, edited by G. Hill (Belfast, 1869); Sir Walter Scott, The Legend of Montrose, author's preface. MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827), Anglo-Indian soldier and statesman, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was at first intended to enter his father's business, but in 1789 he was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder Ali (1780-83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo (1790-92). He was then chosen as one of four military officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years, learning the principles of revenue survey and assessment which he afterwards applied throughout the presidency of Madras. After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, he spent a short time restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years (1800-1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts " ceded " by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced the ryotwari system of land revenue. After a long furlough in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon matters connected with the renewal of the company's charter, he returned to Madras in 1814 with special instructions to reform the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari War in 1817, he was appointed as brigadier-general to command the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion Canning said in the House of Commons: " He went into the field with not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small pro- portion were Europeans. . . . Nine forts were surrendered to him or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and scarcely observed progress he emerged . . . leaving everything secure and tranquil behind him." In 1820 he was appointed governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue assessment and general administration which substantially remain to the present day. His official minutes, published by Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for the modern civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July 1827, while on tour in the " ceded " districts, where his name is preserved by more than one memorial. An equestrian statue of him, by Chantrey, stands in Madras city. See biographies by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881) and J. Bradshaw (1894). MUNSHI, or MOONSHI, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary, used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries employed by Europeans. MUNSTER, GEORG, COUNT zu (1776-1844), German palae- ontologist, was born on the i7th of February 1776. He formed a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological museum at Munich. Count Miinster assisted Goldfuss in his great work Petrefacta Germaniae. He died at Bayreuth on the 23rd of December 1844. MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552), German geographer, mathematician and Hebraist, was born at Ingelheim in the Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tubingen, he entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Luther- anism about 1529. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple of Elias Levita, he was the first German to edit the Hebrew Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, 1534-1535); this edition was accom- panied by a new Latin translation and a large number of anno- tations. He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and was the first to prepare a Grammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527). His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum (1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue, of Latin, Greek and Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmo- graphia, which also appeared in German as a Beschreibung oiler Lander, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of the world in Munster's native language, as well as a supreme effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation period. In this Miinster was assisted by more than one hundred and twenty collaborators. The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung is that of 1550, especially prized for its portraits and its city and costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may notice Munster's Germaniae descriptio of 1530, his Novus orbis of 1532, his Mappa Europae of 1536, his Rhaelia of 1538, his editions of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1538-1540 and among non- g:ographical treatises his Horologiographia, 1531, on dialling (see IAL), his Organum uranicum of 1536 on the planetary motions, and his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered 142. See V. Hantzsch, Sebastian Miinster (1898), in vol. xviii. of the Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, Historical- Philological Section). MUNSTER, a town of Germany, in the district of Upper Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries are spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the yth century, and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In its 12 MUNSTER— MUNSTERBERG, H. neighbourhood is the ruin of Schwarzenberg. The Ministerial, or Gregoriental, which is watered by the river Fecht, is famous for its cheese. See Rathgeber, Milnster-im-Gregoriental (Strassburg, 1874) and F. Hecker, Die Stadt und das Tal zu Miinster im St Gregoriental (Munster, 1890). MUNSTER, a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian pro- vince of Westphalia, and formerly the capital of an important bishopric. It lies in a sandy plain on the Dortmund-Ems canal, at the junction of several railways, 107 m. S.W. of Bremen on the line to Cologne. Pop. (1885), 44,060; (1905) 81,468. The town preserves its medieval character, especially in the " Prinzipal-Markt " and other squares, with their lofty gabled houses and arcades. The fortifications were dismantled during the 1 8th century, their place being taken by gardens and prome- nades. Of the many churches of Munster the most important is the cathedral, one of the most striking in Germany, although disfigured by modern decorations. It was rebuilt in the i3th and I4th centuries, and exhibits a combination of Romanesque and Gothic forms; its chapter-house is specially fine. The beautiful Gothic church of St Lambert (i4th century) was largely rebuilt after 1868; on its tower, which is 312 ft. in height, hang three iron cages in which the bodies of John of Leiden and two of his followers were exposed in 1536. The church of St Ludger, erected in the Romanesque style about 1170, was extended in the Gothic style about 200 years later; it has a tower with a picturesque lantern. The church of St Maurice, founded about 1070, was rebuilt during the igth century, and the Gothic church of Our Lady dates from the i4th century. Other noteworthy buildings are the town-hall, a fine Gothic building of the i4th century, and the Stadtkeller, which contains a collection of early German paintings. The room in the town- hall called the Friedens Saal, in which the peace of Westphalia was signed in October 1648, contains portraits of many ambas- sadors and princes who were present at the ceremony. The Schloss, built in 1767, was formerly the residence of bishops of Munster. The private houses, many of which were the winter residences of the nobility of Westphalia, are admirable examples of German domestic architecture in the i6th, i7th and i8th centuries. The university of Munster, founded after the Seven Years' War and closed at the beginning of the igth century, was reopened as an academy in 1818, and again attained the rank of a university in 1902. It possesses faculties of theology, philosophy and law. In connexion with it are botanical and zoological gardens, several scientific collections, and a library of 1 20,000 volumes. Munster is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and of the administrative and judicial authorities of Westphalia, and is the headquarters of an army corps. The Westphalian society of antiquaries and several other learned bodies also have their headquarters here. Industries include weaving, dyeing, brewing and printing, and the manufacture of furniture and machines. There is a brisk trade in cattle, grain and other products of the neighbourhood. History. — Munster is first mentioned about the year 800, when Charlemagne made it the residence of Ludger, the newly- appointed bishop of the Saxons. Owing to its distance from any available river or important highway, the growth of the settlement round the monasterium was slow, and it was not until after 1186 that it received a charter, the name Munster Having supplanted the original name of Mimegardevoord about a century earlier. During the I3th and I4th centuries the town was one of the most prominent members of the Hanseatic League. At the time of the Reformation the citizens were inclined to adopt the Protestant doctrines, but the excesses of the Anabaptists led in 1535 to the armed intervention of the bishop and to the forcible suppression of all divergence from the older faith. The Thirty Years' War, during which Munster suffered much from the Protestant armies, was ter- minated by the peace of Westphalia, sometimes called the peace of Munster, because it was signed here on the 24th of October 1648. The authority of the bishops, who seldom resided at Munster, was usually somewhat limited, but in 1661 Bishop Christoph Bernhard von Galen took the place by force, built a citadel, and deprived the citizens of many of their privileges. During the Seven Years' War Munster was occupied both by the French and by their foes. Towards the close of the 1 8th century the town was recognized as one of the intellectual centres of Germany. The bishopric of Munster embraced an area of about 2500 sq. m. and contained about 350,000 inhabitants. Its bishops, who resided generally at Ahaus, were princes of the empire. In the 1 7th century Bishop Galen, with his army of 20,000 men. was so powerful that his alliance was sought by Charles II. of England and other European sovereigns. The bishopric was secularized and its lands annexed to Prussia in 1803. See Geisberg, Merkwiirdigkeiten der Stadt Munster (1877) ; Erhard, Geschichte Munslers (1837); A.Tibus, Die Stadt Miinster (Munster, 1882); Hellinghaus, Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der Stadt Munster (Munster, 1898); Pieper, Die alte Universitiit Munster 1773-1818 (Munster, 1902). See also Tucking, Geschichte des Stifts Munster unter C. B. von Galen (Munster, 1865). MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tipperary, Limerick, Kerry, Cork and Waterford (q.v. for topography, &c.). After the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (Mumha) became nominally a provincial kingdom; but as the territory was divided between two families there was constant friction and it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as king over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his two sons, giving Desmond (q.v., Des-Mumha) to Eoghan and Thomond (Tuadh-Mumha) or north Munster to Cormac. He also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong in turn to their descendants. In this way the kingship of Munster survived until 1194; but there were kings of Desmond and Thomond down to the i6th century. Munster was originally of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it included the district of Ely, which belonged to the O'Carrols and formed a part of the present King's County. During the 1 6th century, however, Thomond was for a time included in Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare (q.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney. Part of Munster had been included in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In 1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught) was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first president, and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically new shiring was carried out. MUNSTER AM STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, 2^ m. S. of Kreuznach, on the railway from Bingerbriick to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), 915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rhein- grafenstein (i2th century), formerly a seat of the count palatine of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords of Sickingen, and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Hutten, to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients annually. See Welsch, Das Sol- und Thermalbad Munster am Stein (Kreuz- nach, 1886) and Messer, Fiihrer durch Bad Kreuznach und Munster am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905). MUNSTERBERG, HUGO ( 1 863- ) , German-American psycho- physiologist, was born at Danzig. Having been extraordinary professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 pro- fessor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more important works are Beitriige zur experimentellen Psychologic (4 vols., Freiburg, 1889-1892); Psychology and Life (New York, 1899); Grundzuge der Psychologic (Leipzig, 1900); American Traits from the Point of View of a German (Boston, 1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science and Idealism (New York, 1906); Philosophic der Werte (Leipzig, 1908); Aus Deulsch-Amerika (Berlin, 1908); Psychology and Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified with the modern developments of experimental psychology MUNSTERBERG— MUNZER (see PSYCHOLOGY), and his sociological writings display the acuteness of a German philosophic mind as applied to the study of American life and manners. MUNSTERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian pro- vince of Silesia, on the Ohlau, 36 m. by rail S. of Breslau. Pop. (1905), 8475. It is partly surrounded by medieval walls. It has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are also sulphur springs. Miinsterberg was formerly the capital of the principality of the same name, which existed from the I4th century down to 1791, when it was purchased by the Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey of Heinrichau. MUNTANER, RAMON '(1265-1336?), Catalan historian, was born at Peralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his career are recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger de Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina, served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor, and became the first governor of Gallipoli. Later he was appointed governor of Jerba or Zerbi, an island in the Gulf of Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca. On the isth of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he began his Chronica, o descripcio dels jets, e hazanas del inclyt rey Don laume Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express command of God who appeared to him in a vision. Muntaner's book, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief authority for the events of his period, and his narrative, though occasionally prolix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and vivid. He is said to have died in 1336. His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl Lanz at Stuttgart in 1844. MUNTJAC, the Indian name of a small deer typifying the genus Cerndus, all the members of which are indigenous to the southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, and are separated by marked characters from all their allies. For the distinctive features of the genus see DEER. As regards general characteristics, all muntjacs are small compared with the majority of deer, and have long bodies and rather short limbs and neck. The antlers of the bucks are small and simple; The Indian Muntjac (Cervulus muntjac). the main stem or beam, after giving off a short brow-tine, in- clining backwards and upwards, being unbranched and pointed, and when fully developed curving inwards and somewhat down- wards at the tip. These small antlers are supported upon pedicles, or processes of the frontal bones, longer than in any other deer, the front edges of these being continued downwards as strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the eyes. From this feature the name rib-faced deer has been suggested for the muntjac. The upper canine teeth of the males are large and sharp, projecting outside the mouth as tusks, and loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are much smaller. Muntjacs are solitary animals, even two being rarely seen together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests, in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to graze. They carry the head and neck low and the hind-quarters high, their action in running being peculiar and not elegant, somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no power of sustained speed or extensive leaping, they are remark- able for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through tangled underwood. A popular name with Indian sportsmen is " barking deer," on account of the alarm-cry — a kind of short shrill bark, like that of a fox, but louder. When attacked by dogs, the males use their sharp canine teeth, which inflict deep and even dangerous wounds. In" the Indian muntjac the height of the buck is from 20 tc 22 in.; allied types, some of which have received distinct names, occur in Burma and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Among these, the Burmese C. muntjac grandicornis is noteworthy on account of its large antlers. The Tibetan muntjac (C. lachrymans) , from Moupin in eastern Tibet and Hangchow in China, is somewhat smaller than the Indian animal, with a bright reddish-brown coat. The smallest member of the genus (C. reevest) occurs in southern China and has a reddish-chestnut coat, speckled with yellowish grey and a black band down the nape. The Tenasserim muntjac (C. feae), about the size of the Indian species, is closely allied to the hairy-fronted muntjac (C. crinifrons) of eastern China, but lacks the tuft of hair on the forehead. The last-mentioned species, by its frontal tuft, small rounded ears, general brown coloration, and minute antlers, connects the typical muntjacs with the small tufted deer or tufted muntjacs of the genus Elaphodus of eastern China and Tibet. These last have coarse bristly hair of a purplish-brown colour with light markings, very large head-tufts, almost concealing the minute antlers, of which the pedicles do not extend as ribs down the face. They include E. cephalophus of Tibet, E. michianus of Ningpo, and E. ichangensis of the mountains of Ichang. (R. L.*) MUNZER, THOMAS (c. 1480-1525), German religious enthu- siast, was born at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the 1 5th century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating is theology. He held preaching appointments in various places, but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence, together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a society the principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous ad- herents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion from this city also. At Easter 1523 Miinzer came to Allstedt, and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John, where he made extensive alterations in the services. His violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation for which Miinzer denounced the Wittenberg teaching. His preaching soon produced an uproar in Allstedt, and after holding his own for some time he left the town and went to Miihlhausen, where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar to his own. The union of Miinzer and Pfeiffer caused a disturb- ance in this city and both were expelled. Miinzer went to Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent. He denounced established governments, and advocated common ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany he returned to Miihlhausen, overthrew the governing body of the city, and established a communistic theocracy. The Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of Germany; and as the peasantry around Miihlhausen were imbued with Miinzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at Frankenhausen; but on the isth of May 1525 the peasants were dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured Mtinzer and executed him on the 27th at Miihlhausen. Before his MUNZINGER— MURAD death he is said to have written a letter admitting the justice of his sentence. His Aussgetriickte Emplossung des falschen Glaubens has been edited by R. Jordan (Muhlhausen, 1901), and a life of Munzer, Die Histori von Thome Muntzer des Anfengers der duringischen Uffrur, has been attributed to Philip Melanchthon (Hagenau, 1525). See G. T. Strobel, Leben, Schriften und Lehren Thomd Miinlzers (Nuremberg, 1795); J. K. Seidemann, Thomas Munzer (Leipzig, 1842); O. Merx, Thomas Munzer und Heinrich Pfeiffer (Gottingen, 1889) ; G. Wolfrau, Thomas Munzer in Allstedt (Jena, 1852). MUNZINGER, WERNER (1832-1875), Swiss linguist and traveller, was born at Olten in Switzerland, on the 2ist of April 1832. After studying natural science, Oriental languages and history, at Bern, Munich and Paris, he went to Egypt in 1852 and spent a year in Cairo perfecting himself in Arabic. Entering a French mercantile house, he went as leader of a trading expe- dition to various parts of the Red Sea, fixing his quarters at Massawa, where he acted as French consul. In 1855 he removed to Keren, the chief town of the Bogos, in the north of Abyssinia, which country he explored during the next six years. In 1861 he joined the expedition under T. von Heuglin to Central Africa, but separated from him in November in northern Abyssinia, proceeding along the Gash and Atbara to Khartum. Thence, having meantime succeeded Heuglin as leader of the expedition, he travelled in 1862 to Kordofan, failing, however, in his attempt to reach Darfur and Wadai. After a short stay in Europe in 1863, Munzinger returned to the north and north-east border- lands of Abyssinia, and in 1865, the year of the annexation of Massawa by Egypt, was appointed British consul at that town. He rendered valuable aid to the Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68, among other things exploring the almost unknown Afar country. In acknowledgment of his services he received the C.B. In 1868 he was appointed French consul at Massawa, and in 1871 was named by the khedive Ismail governor of that town with the title of bey. In 1870, with Captain S. B. Miles, Mun- zinger visited southern Arabia. As governor of Massawa he annexed to Egypt the Bogos and Hamasen provinces of northern Abyssinia, and in 1872 was made pasha and governor-general of the eastern Sudan. It is believed that it was on his advice that Ismail sanctioned the Abyssinian enterprise, but on the war assuming larger proportions in 1875 the command of the Egyptian troops in northern Abyssinia was taken from Munzinger, who was selected to command a small expedition intended to open up communication with Menelek, king of Shoa, then at enmity with the negus Johannes (King John) and a potential ally of Egypt. Leaving Tajura Bay on the 27th of October 1875 Munzinger started for Ankober with a force of 350 men, being accompanied by an envoy from Menelek. The desert country to be traversed was in the hands of hostile tribes, and on reaching Lake Aussa the expedition was attacked during the night by Gallas — Mun- zinger, with his wife and nearly all his companions, being killed. Munzinger's contributions to the knowledge of the country, people and languages of north-eastern Africa are of solid value. See Proc. R.G.S., vol. xiii.; Journ. R.G.S., vols. xxxix., xli. and xlvi. (obituary notice); Petermanns Mitteilungen for 1858, 1867, 1872 et seq. ; Dietschi and Weber, Werner Munzinger, ein Lebensbild (1875); J- v- Keller-Zschokke, Werner Munzinger Pasha (1890). Munzinger published the following works: Vber die Sitten und das Recht der Bogos (1859); Ostafrikanische Studien (1864; 2nd ed., 1883; his most valuable book) ; Die deutsche Expedition in Ostafrika (1865) ; Vocabulaire de la langue de Tigre (1865), besides papers in the geo- graphical serials referred to, and a memoir on the northern borders of Abyssinia in the Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde, new series, vol. ih. MURAD, or AMURATH, the name of five Ottoman sultans. MURAD I., surnamed Khudavendighiar (1310-1389), was the son of Orkhan and the Greek princess Nilofer, and succeeded his father in 1359. He was the first Turkish monarch to obtain a definite footing in Europe, and his main object throughout his career was to extend the European dominions of Turkey. The revolts of the prince of Caramania interfered with the realization of this plan, and trouble was caused from this quarter more than once during his reign until the decisive battle of Konia (1387), when the power of the prince of Caramania was broken. The state of Europe facilitated Murad's projects: civil war and anarchy prevailed in most of the countries of Central Europe, where the feudal system was at its last gasp( and the small Balkan states were divided by mutual jealousies. The capture of Adrianople, followed by other conquests, brought about a coalition under the king of Hungary against Murad, but his able lieutenant Lalashahin, the first beylerbey of Rumelia, defeated the allies at the battle of the Maritsa in 1363. In 1366 the king of Servia was defeated at Samakov and forced to pay tribute. Kustendil, Philippopolis and Nish fell into the hands, of the Turks; a renewal of the war in 1381 led to the capture of Sofia two years later. Europe was now aroused; Lazar, king of Servia, formed an alliance with the Albanians, the Hungarians and the Moldavians against the Turks. Murad hastened back to Europe and met his enemies on the field of Kossovo (1389). Victory finally inclined to the side of the Turks. When the rout of the Christians was complete, a Servian named Milosh Kabilovich penetrated to Murad's tent on pretence of communicating an important secret to the sultan, and stabbed the conqueror. Murad was of independent character and remarkable intelligence. He was fond of pleasure and luxury, cruel and cunning. Long relegated to the command of a distant province in Asia, while his brother Suleiman occupied an enviable post in Europe, he became revengeful; thus he exercised great cruelty in the repression of the rebellion of his son Prince Sauji, the first instance of a sultan's son taking arms against his father. Murad transferred the Ottoman capital from Brusa to Adrianople, where he built a palace and added many embellishments to the town. The development of the feudal system of timars and ziamets and its extension to Europe was largely his work. MURAD II. (1403-1451) succeeded his father Mahommed I. in 1421. The attempt of his uncle Prince Mustafa to usurp the throne, supported as it was by the Greeks, gave trouble at the outset of his reign, and led to the unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 1422. Murad maintained a long struggle against the Bosnians and Hungarians, in the course cf which Turkey sustained many severe reverses through the valour oi Janos Hunyadi. Accordingly in 1444 he concluded a treaty at Szegedin for ten years, by which he renounced all claim to Servia and recognized George Brancovich as its king. Shortly after this, being deeply affected by the death of his eldest son Prince Ala-ud-din, he abdicated in favour of Mahommed, his second son, then fourteen years of age. But the treacherous attack, in violation of treaty, by the Christian powers, imposing too hard a task on the inexperienced young sovereign, Murad returned from his retirement at Magnesia, crushed his faithless enemies at the battle of Varna (Novemebr 10, 1444), and again withdrew to Magnesia. A revolt of the janissaries induced him to return to power, and he spent the remaining six years of his life in warfare in Europe, defeating Hunyadi at Kossovo (October 17-19, 1448). He died at Adrianople in 1451, and was buried at Brusa. By some considered as a fanatical devotee, and by others as given up to mysticism, he is generally described as kind and gentle in disposition, and devoted to the interests of his country. MURAD III. (1546-1595), was the eldest son of Selim II., and succeeded his father in 1574. His accession marks the definite beginning of the decline of the Ottoman power, which had only been maintained under Selim II. by the genius of the all-powerful grand vizier Mahommed Sokolli. For, though Sokolli remained in office until his assassination in October 1578, his authority was undermined by the harem influences, which with Murad III. were supreme. Of these the most powerful was that of the sultan's chief wife, named Safie (the pure), a beautiful Venetian of the noble family of Baffo, whose father had been governor of Corfu, and who had been captured as a child by Turkish corsairs and sold into the harem. This lady, in spite of the sultan's sensuality and of the efforts, temporarily successful, to supplant her in his favour, retained her ascendancy over him to the last. Murad had none of the qualities of a ruler. He was good-natured, though cruel enough on occasion: his accession had been marked by the murder, according to the MURAENA •custom then established, of his five brothers. His will-power had early been undermined by the opium habit, and was further weakened by the sensual excesses that ultimately killed him. Nor had he any taste for rule; his days were spent in the society of musicians, buffoons and poets, and he himself dabbled in verse-making of a mystic tendency. His one attempt at reform, the order forbidding the sale of intoxicants so as to stop the growing intemperance of the janissaries, broke down on the opposition of the soldiery. He was the first sultan to share personally in the proceeds of the corruption which was undermining the state, realizing especially large sums by the sale of offices. This corruption was fatally apparent in the army, the feudal basis of which was sapped by the confiscation of fiefs for the benefit of nominees of favourites of the harem, and by the intrusion, through the same influences of foreigners and rayahs into the corps of janissaries, of which the discipline became more and more relaxed and the temper increasingly turbulent. In view of this general demoralization not even the victorious outcome of the campaigns in Georgia, the Crimea, Daghestan, Yemen and Persia (1578-1590) could prevent the decay of the Ottoman power; indeed, by weakening the Mussulman states, they hastened the process, since they facilitated the advance of Russia to the Black Sea and the Caspian. Murad, who had welcomed the Persian War as a good oppor- tunity for ridding himself of the presence of the janissaries, whom he dreaded, had soon cause to fear their triumphant return. Incensed by the debasing of the coinage, which robbed them of part of their pay, they invaded the Divan clamouring for the heads of the sultan's favourite, the beylerbey of Rumelia, and of the defterdar (finance minister), which were thrown to them (April 3, 1589). This was the first time that the janissaries had invaded the palace: a precedent to be too often followed. The outbreak of another European war in 1592 gave the sultan an opportunity of ridding himself of their presence. Murad died in 1595, leaving to his successor a legacy of war and anarchy. It was under Murad III. that England's relations with the Porte began. Negotiations were opened in 1579 with Queen Elizabeth through certain British merchants; in 1580 the first Capitulations with England were signed; in 1583 William Harebone, the first British ambassador to the Porte, arrived at Constantinople, and in 1593 commercial Capitulations were signed with England granting the same privileges as those enjoyed by the French. (See CAPITULATIONS.) MURAD IV. (1611-1640) was the son of Sultan Ahmed I., and succeeded his uncle Mustafa I. in 1623. For the first nine years of his reign his youth prevented him from taking more than an observer's part in affairs. But the lessons thus learnt were sufficiently striking to mould his whole character and policy. The minority of the sultan gave full play to the anarchic elements in the state; the soldiery, spahis and janissaries, conscious of their power and reckless through impunity, rose in revolt whenever the whim seized them, demanding privileges and the heads of those who displeased them, not sparing even the sultan's favourites. In 1631 the spahis of Asia Minor rose in revolt, in protest against the deposition of the grand vizier Khosrev: their representatives crowded to Constantinople, stoned the new grand vizier, Hafiz, in the court of the palace, and pursued the sultan himself into the inner apartments, clamouring for seventeen heads of his advisers and favourites, on penalty of his own deposition. Hafiz was surrendered, a voluntary martyr; other ministers were deposed; Mustafa Pasha, aga of the janissaries, was saved by his own troops. But Mura-d was now beginning to assert himself. Khosrev was executed in Asia Minor by his orders; a plot of the spahis to depose him was frustrated by the loyalty of Koes Mahommed, aga of the janissaries, and of the spahi Rum Mahommed (Mahommed the Greek); and on the 2gth of May 1632, by a successful personal appeal to the loyalty of the janissaries, Murad crushed the rebels, whom he surrounded in the Hippo- drome. At the age of twenty he found himself possessed of effective autocratic power. His severity has remained legendary. Death was the penalty for the least offence, and no past services — as Koes Mahommed was to find to his cost — were admitted in extenuation. The use of tobacco, coffee, opium and wine were forbidden on pain of death; eighteen persons are said to have been put to death in a single day for infringing this rule. During his whole reign, indeed, supposed offenders against the sultan's authority were done to death, singly or in thousands. The tale of his victims is said to have exceeded 100,000. But if he was the most cruel, Murad was also one of the most manly, of the later sultans. He was of gigantic strength, which he maintained by constant physical exercises. He was also fond of hunting, and for this reason usually lived at Adrianople. He broke through the alleged tradition, bequeathed by Suleiman the Magnificent to his successors, that the sultan should not command the troops in person, and took command in the Persian war which led to the capture of Bagdad (1638) and the conclusion of an honourable peace (May 7, 1639). Early in 1640 he died, barely twenty-nine years of age. The cause of his death was acute gout brought on by excessive drinking. In spite of his drunkenness, however, Murad was a bigoted Sunni, and the main cause of his campaign against Persia was his desire to extirpate the Shia heresy. In the intervals of his campaignings and cruelties the sultan would amuse his entourage by exhibit- ing feats of strength, or compose verses, some of which were published under the pseudonym of Muradi. See, for details of the lives of the above, J. von Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte des osmanischen Retches (Pest, 1840), where further authorities are cited. MURAD V. (1840-1904), eldest son of Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 2ist of September 1840. On the accession of his uncle Abd-ul-Aziz, Prince Mahommed Murad Effendi— as he was then called — was deprived of all share in public affairs and imprisoned, owing to his opposition to the sultan's plan for altering the order of succession. On the deposition of Abd-ul-Aziz on the 3oth of May 1876, Murad was haled from his prison by a mob of softas and soldiers of the " Young Turkey " party under Suleiman Pasha, and proclaimed " emperor by the grace of God and the will of the people." Three months later, however, his health, undermined by his long confinement, gave way; and on the 313! of August he was deposed to make room for his younger brother, Abd-ul-Hamid II. He was kept in confinement in the Cheragan palace till his death on the zgth of August 1904. See Keratry, Mourad V., prince, sultan, prisonnier d'ftat 1840- 1876 (Paris, 1878); Djemaleddin Bey, Sultan Murad V., the Turkish Dynasty Mystery, 1876-1895 (London, 1895). MURAENA, the name of an eel common in the Mediterranean, and highly esteemed by the ancient Romans; it was afterwards Muraena picta, from the Indo- Pacific. applied to the whole genus of fishes to which the Mediterranean species belongs, and which is abundantly represented in tropical and sub-tropical seas, especially in rocky parts or on coral reefs. Some ninety species are known. In the majority a long fin runs from the head along the back, round the tail to the vent, i6 MURAL DECORATION but all are destitute of pectoral and ventral fins. The skin is scaleless and smooth, in many species ornamented with varied and bright colours, so that these fishes are frequently mistaken for snakes. The mouth is wide, the jaws strong and armed with formidable, generally sharply pointed, teeth, which enable the Muraena not only to seize its prey (which chiefly consists of other fishes) but also to inflict serious, and sometimes danger- ous, wounds on its enemies. It attacks persons who approach its places of concealment in shallow water, and is feared by fishermen. Some of the tropical Muraenas exceed a length of 10 ft., but most of the species, among them the Mediterranean species, attain to only half that length. The latter, the " morena " of the Italians and the Muraena Helena of ichthyologists, was considered by the ancient Romans to be one of the greatest delicacies, and was kept in large ponds and aquaria. It is not confined to the coasts of southern Europe, but is spread over the Indian Ocean, and is not uncommon on the coasts of Australia. Its body is generally of a rich brown, marked with large yellowish spots, each of which contains smaller brown spots. MURAL DECORATION, a general term for the art of ornament- ing wall surfaces. There is scarcely one of the numerous branches of decorative art which has not at some time or other been applied to this purpose.1 For what may be called the practical or furnishing point of view, see WALL-COVERINGS. Here the subject is treated rather as part of the history of art. x. Reliefs sculptured in Marble or Stone. — This is the oldest method of wall-decoration, of which numerous examples exist. The tombs and temples of Egypt are rich in this kind of mural ornament of various dates, extending over nearly 5000 years. These sculptures are, as a rule, carved in low relief; in many cases they are " counter-sunk," that is, the most projecting parts of the figures do not extend beyond the flat surface of the ground. Some unfinished reliefs discovered in the rock-cut tombs of Thebes show the manner in which the sculptor set to work. The plain surface of the stone was marked out by red lines into a number of squares of equal size. The use of this was probably twofold: first, as a guide in enlarging the design from a small drawing, a method still commonly practised; second, to help the artist to draw his figures with just proportions, following the strict canons which were laid down by the Egyptians. No excessive realism or individuality of style arising from a careful study of the life-model was permitted.2 When the surface had been covered with these squares, the artist drew with a brush dipped in red the outlines of his relief, and then cut round them with his chisel. When the relief was finished, it was, as a rule, entirely painted over with much minuteness and great variety of colours. More rarely the ground was left the natural tint of the stone or marble, and only the figures and hieroglyphs painted. In the case of sculpture in hard basalt or granite the painting appears often to have been omitted altogether. The absence of perspective effects and the severe self-restraint of the sculptors in the matter of composition show a sense of artistic fitness in this kind of decoration. That the rigidity of these sculptured pictures did not arise from want of skill or observation of nature on the part of the artists is apparent when we examine their representations of birds and animals; the special characteristics of each creature and species were unerringly caught by the ancient Egyptian, and reproduced in stone or colour, in a half-symbolic way, suggesting those peculiarities of form, plumage, or movement which are the " differentia " of each, other ideas bearing less directly on the point being eliminated. The subjects of these mural sculptures are endless; almost every possible incident in man's life here or beyond the grave is reproduced with the closest detail. The tomb of Tih at Sakkarah (about 4500 B.C.) has some of the finest and earliest specimens of these mural sculptures, especially rich in illustra- 1 See also CERAMICS ; MOSAIC ; PAINTING ; SCULPTURE ; TAPESTRY ; TILES; also EGYPT; Art and Archaeology; GREEK ART; ROMAN ART; &c. 1 During the earliest times — more than 4000 years before our era — there appear to have been exceptions to this rule. lions of the domestic life and occupations of the Egyptians. The latter tombs, as a rule, have sculptures depicting the religious ritual and belief of the people, and the temples combine these hieratic subjects with the history of the reigns and victor'es of the Egyptian kings. The above remarks as to style and manner of execution may be applied also to the wall-sculptures from the royal palaces of Nineveh and Babylon, the finest of which are shown by inscrip- tions to date from the time of Sennacherib to that of Sardana- palus (from 705 to 625 B.C.). These are carved in low relief with almost gem-like delicacy of detail on enormous slabs of white marble. The sacred subjects, generally representing the king worshipping one of the numerous Assyrian gods, are mostly large, often colossal in scale. The other subjects, illustrating the life and amusements of the king, his prowess in war or hunting, or long processions of prisoners and tribute-bearers coming to do him homage, are generally smaller and in some cases very minute in scale (fig. i). The arrangement of these reliefs FIG. i. — -Assyrian Relief, on a Marble Wall-slab from the Palace of Sardanapalus at Nineveh. in long horizontal bands, and their reserved conventional treat- ment are somewhat similar to those of ancient Egypt, but they show a closer attention to anatomical truth and a greater love for dramatic effect than any of the Egyptian reliefs. As in the art of Egypt, birds and animals are treated with greater realism than human figures. A relief in the British Museum, representing a lioness wounded by an arrow in her spine and dragging helplessly her paralysed hind legs, affords an example of wonderful truth and pathos. Remarkable technical skill is shown in all these sculptures by the way in which the sculptors have obtained the utmost amount of effect with the smallest possible amount of relief, in this respect calling strongly to mind a similar peculiarity in the work of the Florentine Donatello. The palace at Mashita on the hajj road in Moab, built by the Sasanian Chosroes II. (A.D. 614-627), is ornamented on the exterior with beautiful surface sculpture in stone. The designs are of peculiar interest as forming a link between Assyrian and Byzantine art, and they are not remotely connected with the decoration on Moslem buildings of comparatively modern date.3 Especially in Italy during the middle ages a similar treatment * Among the Mashita carvings occurs that oldest and most widely spread of all forms of Aryan ornament — the sacred tree between two animals. The sculptured slab over the " lion-gate " at Mycenae has the other common variety of this motive^— the fire-altar between the beasts. These designs, occasionally varied by figures of human worshippers instead of the beasts, survived long after their meaning had been forgotten; even down to the present day they frequently appear on carpets and other textiles of Oriental manufacture. MURAL DECORATION of marble in low relief was frequently used for wall-decoration. The most notable example is the beautiful series of reliefs on the west front of Orvieto Cathedral, the work of Giovanni Pisano and his pupils in the early part of the i4th century. These are small reliefs, illustrative of the Old and New Testaments, of graceful design and skilful execution. A growth of branching foliage serves to unite and frame the tiers of subjects. Of a widely different class, but of considerable importance in the history of mural decoration, are the beautiful reliefs, sculp- tured in stone and marble, with which Moslem buildings in many parts of the world are ornamented. These are mostly geometrical patterns of great intricacy, which cover large surfaces, frequently broken up into panels by bands of more flowing ornament or Arabic inscriptions. The mosques of Cairo, India and Persia, and the domestic Moslem buildings of Spain are extremely rich in this method of decoration. In western Europe, especially during the isth century, stone panelled-work with rich tracery formed a large part of the scheme of decoration in all the more splendid buildings. Akin to this, though without actual relief, is the stone tracery — inlaid flush into rough flint walls — which was a mode of ornament largely used for enriching the exteriors of churches in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. It is almost peculiar to that district, and is an example of the skill and taste with which the medieval builders adapted their method of ornamentation to the materials in hand. 2. Marble Veneer. — Another widely used method of mural decoration has been the application of thin marble linings to wall-surfaces, the decorative effect being produced by the natural beauty of the marble itself and not by sculptured reliefs. One of the oldest buildings in the world, the so-called " Temple of the Sphinx " among the Giza pyramids, is built of great blocks of granite, the inside of the rooms being lined with slabs of semi- transparent African alabaster about 3 in. thick. In the ist cen- tury thin veneers of richly coloured marbles were largely used by the Romans to decorate brick and stone walls. Pliny (H. N. xxxvi. 6) speaks of this practice as being a new and degenerate invention in his time. Many examples exist at Pompeii and in other Roman buildings. Numerous Byzantine churches, such as St Saviour's at Constantinople, and St George's, Thessalonica, have the lower part of the internal walls richly ornamented in this way. It was commonly used to form a dado, the upper part of the building being covered with mosaic. The cathedral of Monreale and other Siculo-Norman buildings owe a great deal of their splendour to these linings of richly variegated marbles. In most cases the main surface is of light-coloured marble or alabaster, inlaid bands of darker tint or coloured mosaic being used to divide the surface into panels. The peculiar Italian- Gothic of northern and central Italy during the I4th and isth centuries, and at Venice some centuries earlier, relied greatly for its effects on this treatment of marble. St Mark's at Venice and the cathedral of Florence are magnificent examples of this work used externally. Both inside and out most of the richest examples of Moslem architecture owe much to this method of decoration; the mosques and palaces of India and Persia are in many cases completely lined with the most brilliant sorts of marble of contrasting tints. 3. Wall-Linings of Glazed Bricks or Tiles. — This is a very important class of decoration, and from its almost imperishable nature, its richness of colour, and its brilliance of surface is capable of producing a splendour of effect only rivalled by glass mosaics. In the less important form — that of bricks modelled or stamped in relief with figures and inscriptions, and then coated with a brilliant colour in siliceous enamel — it was largely used by the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians as well as by the later Sasanians of Persia. In the nth and 1 2th centuries the Moslems of Persia brought this art to great perfection, and used it on a large scale, chiefly, though not invariably, for internal walls. The main surfaces were covered by thick earthenware tiles, overlaid with a white enamel. These were not rectangular, but of various shapes, mostly some form of a star, arranged so as to fit closely together. Delicate and minute patterns were then painted on the tiles, after the first firing, in a copper-like colour with strong metallic lustre, produced by the deoxidization of a metallic salt in the process of the second firing. Bands and friezes with Arabic inscriptions, modelled boldly in high relief, were used to break up the monotony of the surface. In these, as a rule, the projecting letters were painted blue, and the flat ground enriched with very minute patterns in the lustre-colour. This combination of bold relief and delicate painting produces great vigour and richness of effect, equally telling whether viewed in the mass or closely examined tile by tile. In the i5th century lustre-colours, though still largely employed for plates, vases and other vessels, especially in Spain, were little used for tiles; and another class of ware, rich in the variety and brilliance of its colours, was extensively used by Moslem builders all over the Mahommedan world. The most sumptuous sorts of tiles used for wall-coverings are those of the so-called " Rhodian " and Damascene wares, the work of Persian potters at many places. Those made at Rhodes are coarsely executed in comparison with the produce of the older potteries at Isfahan and Damascus (see CERAMICS). These are rectangular tiles of earthenware, covered with a white " slip," and painted in brilliant colours with slight conventionalized representations of various flowers, especially the rose, the hyacinth and the carnation. The red used is applied in considerable body, so as to stand out in slight relief. Another class of design is more geometrical, forming regular repeats; but the most beautiful compositions are those in which the natural growth of trees and flowers is imitated, the branches and blossoms spreading over a large surface covered by hundreds of tiles without any repetition. One of the finest examples is the " Mecca wall " in the mosque of Ibrahim Agha, Cairo; and other Egyptian mosques are adorned in the same way (fig. 2). Another variety, the special production of Damascus, FIG. 2. — One of the Wall-tiles from the Mosque of Ibrahim Agha, Cairo. (10 in. square.) has the design almost entirely executed in blue. It was about A.D. 1600, in the reign of Shah Abbas I., that this class of pottery was brought to greatest perfection, and it is in Persia that the most magnificent examples are found, dating from the izth to the 1 7th centuries. The most remarkable examples for beauty and extent are the mosque at Tabriz, built by Ah' Khoja in the 1 2th century, the ruined tomb of Sultan Khodabend (A.D. 1303- 1316) at Sultaniyas, the palace of Shah Abbas I. and the tomb of Abbas II. (d. A.D. 1666) at Isfahan, all of which buildings are covered almost entirely inside and out. Another important class of wall-tiles are those manufactured by the Spanish Moors, called " azulejos," especially during the 1 4th century. These are in a very different style, being designed i8 MURAL DECORATION to suggest or imitate mosaic. They have intricate inter- lacing geometrical patterns marked out by lines in slight relief; brilliant enamel colours were then burned into the tile, the projecting lines forming boundaries for the pigments. A rich effect is produced by this combination of relief apd colour. They are mainly used for dadoes about 4 ft. high, often sur- mounted by a band of tiles with painted inscriptions. The Alhambra and Generalife Palaces at Granada, begun in the I3th century, but mainly built and decorated by Yusuf I. and Mahommed V. (A.D. 1333-1391), and the Alcazar at Seville have the most beautiful examples of these " azulejos." The latter building chiefly owes its decorations to Pedro the Cruel (A.D. 1364), who employed Moorish workmen for its tile-coverings and other ornaments. Many other buildings in southern Spain are enriched in the same way, some as late as the i6th century. Almost peculiar to Spain are a variety of wall-tile the work of Italians in the i6th and I7th centuries. These are effective, though rather coarsely painted, and have a rich yellow as the predominant colour. The Casa de Pilatos and Isabel's Chapel in the Alcazar Palace, both at Seville, have the best specimens of these, dating about the year 1 500. In other Western countries tiles have been used more for pavements than for wall-decoration. 4. Wall-Coverings of Hard Stucco, frequently enriched with Reliefs. — The Greeks and Romans possessed the secret of making a hard kind of stucco, creamy in colour, and capable of receiving a polish like that of marble; it would stand exposure to the weather. Those of the early Greek temples which were built, not of marble, but of stone, such as the Doric temples at Aegina, Phigaleia, Paestum and Agrigentum, were all entirely coated inside and out with this material, an admirable surface for the further polychromatic decoration with which all Greek buildings seem to have been ornamented. Another highly artistic use of stucco among the Greeks and Romans, for the interiors of buildings, consisted in covering the walls and vaults with a smooth coat, on which while still wet the outlines of figures, FIG. 3. — Modelled Stucco Wall-Relief, from a Tomb in Magna Graecia. (About half full size.) groups and other ornaments were sketched with a point; more stucco was then applied in lumps and rapidly modelled into delicate relief before it had time to set. Some tombs in Magna Graecia of the 4th century B.C. are decorated in this way with figures of nymphs, cupids, animals and wreaths, all of which are models of grace and elegance, and remarkable for the dexterous way in which a few rapid touches of the modelling tool or thumb have produced a work of the highest artistic beauty (fig. 3). Roman specimens of this sort of decoration are common, fine examples have been found in the baths of Titus and numerous tombs near Rome, as well as in many of the houses of Pompeii. FIG. 4. — Stucco Wall-Relief, from the Alhambra. These are mostly executed with great skill and frequently with good taste, though in some cases, especially at Pompeii, elaborate architectural compositions with awkward attempts at effects of violent perspective, modelled in slight relief on flat wall-surfaces, produce an unpleasing effect. Other Pompeian examples, where the surface is divided into flat panels, each containing a figure or group, have great merit for their delicate richness, v/ithout offending against the canons of wall-decoration, one of the first conditions of which is that no attempt should be made to disguise the fact of its being a solid wall and a flat surface. The Moslem architects of the middle ages made great use of stucco ornament both for external and internal walls. The stucco is modelled in high or low relief in great variety of geo- metrical patterns, alternating with bands of more flowing ornament or long Arabic inscriptions. Many of their buildings, such as the mosque of Tulun at Cairo (A.D. 879), owe nearly all their beauty to this fine stucco work, the purely architectural shell of the structure being often simple and devoid of ornament. These stucco reliefs were, as a rule, further decorated with delicate painting in gold and colours. The Moorish tower at Segovia in Spain is a good example of this class of ornament used externally. With the exception of a few bands of brick and the stone quoins at the angles, the whole exterior of the tower is covered with a network of stucco reliefs in simple geometrical patterns. The Alhambra at Granada and the Alcazar at Seville have the richest examples of this work. The lower part of the walls is lined with marble or tiles to a height of about 4 ft. and above that in many cases the whole surface is encrusted with these reliefs, the varied surface of which, by producing endless gradations of shadow, takes away any possible harshness from the brilliance of the gold and colours (fig. 4). During the i6th century, and even earlier, stucco wall-reliefs were used with considerable skill and decorative effect in Italy, England and other Western countries. Perhaps the most graceful MURAL DECORATION examples are the reliefs with which Vasari in the i6th century encrusted pillars and other parts of the court in the Florentine Palazzo Vecchio, built of plain stone by Michelozzo in 1454. Some are of flowing vines and other plants winding spirally round the columns. The English examples of this work are effectively designed, though coarser in execution. The outside of a half-timbered house in the market-place at Newark-upon- Trent has high reliefs in stucco of canopied figures, dating from the end of the isth century. The counties of Essex and Suffolk are rich in examples of this work used externally; and many 16th-century houses in England have fine internal stucco decoration, especially Hardwicke Hall (Derbyshire), one of the rooms of which has the upper part of the wall enriched with life-sized stucco figures in high relief, forming a deep frieze all round. 5. Sgraffito. — This is a variety of stucco work used chiefly in Italy from the i6th century downwards, and employed only for exteriors of buildings, especially the palaces of Tuscany and northern Italy. The wall is covered with a coat of stucco made black by an admixture of charcoal; over this a second thin coat of white stucco is laid. When it is all hard the design is produced by cutting and scratching away the white skin, so as to show the black under-coat. Thus the drawing appears in black on a white ground. This work is effective at a distance, as it requires a bold style of handling, in which the shadows are indicated by cross-hatched lines more or less near together.1 Flowing ara- besques mixed with grotesque figures occur most frequently in sgraffito. In recent years the sgraffito method has been revived; and the result of Mr Moody's experiments may be seen on the east wall of the Royal College of Science in Exhibition Road, London. 6. Stamped Leather. — This was a magnificent and expensive form of wall-hanging, chiefly used during the i6th and lyth centuries. Skins, generally of goats or calves, were well tanned and cut into rectangular shapes. They were then covered with FIG. 5. — Italian Stamped Leather; i6th century, silver leaf, which was varnished with a transparent yellow lacquer making the silver look like gold. The skins were then stamped or embossed with patterns in relief, formed by heavy pressure from metal dies, one in relief and the other sunk. The reliefs were then painted by hand in many colours, generally brilliant 1 A good description of the process is given by Vasari, Tre arti del disegno, cap. xxvi. in tone. Italy and Spain (especially Cordova) were important seats of this manufacture; and in the 17th century a large quantity was produced in France. Fig. 5 gives a good example of Italian stamped leather of the i6th century. In England, chiefly at Norwich, this manufacture was carried on in the 1 7th and i8th centuries. In durability and richness of effect stamped leather surpasses most other forms of movable wall- decoration. 7. Painted Cloth. — Another form of wall-hanging, used most largely during the isth and i6th centuries, and in a less extensive way a good deal earlier, is canvas painted to imitate tapestry. English medieval inventories both of ecclesiastical and domestic goods frequently contain items such as these: " stayned cloths for hangings," " paynted cloths with stories and batailes," or " paynted cloths of beyond sea work," or " of Flaunder's work." Many good artists working at Ghent and Bruges during the first half of the isth century produced fine work of this class, as well as designs for real tapestry. Several of the great Italian artists devoted their skill in composition and invention to the painting of these wall-hangings. The most important existing example is the series of paintings of the triumph of Julius Caesar executed by Andrea Mantegna (1485-1492) for Ludovico Gonzaga, duke of Mantua, and now at Hampton Court. These are usually, but wrongly, called " cartoons," as if they were designs meant to be executed in tapestry; this is not the case, as the paintings themselves were used as wall-hangings. They are nine in number and each compartment, 9 ft. square, was separated from the next by a pilaster. They form a continuous procession, with life- sized figures, remarkable for their composition, drawing and delicate colouring — the latter unfortunately much disguised by " restoration." Like most of these painted wall-hangings, they are executed in tempera, and rather thinly painted, so that the pigment might not crack off through the cloth falling slightly into folds. Another remarkable series of painted cloth hangings are those at Reims Cathedral. In some cases dyes were used for this work. A MS. of the isth century gives receipts for " painted cloth," showing that sometimes they were dyed in a manner similar to those Indian stuffs which were afterwards printed, and are now called chintzes. These receipts are for real dyes, not for pigments, and among them is the earliest known description of the process called "setting" the woad or indigo vat, as well as a receipt for removing or " discharging " the colour from a cloth already dyed. Another method employed was a sort of " encaustic " process; the cloth was rubbed all over with wax, and then painted in tempera; heat was then applied so that the colours sank into the melting wax, and were thus firmly fixed upon the cloth. 8. Printed Hangings and Wail-Papers. — The printing of various textiles with dye-colours and mordants is probably one of the most ancient arts. Pliny (H. N. xxxv.) describes a dyeing process employed by the ancient Egyptians, in which the pattern was probably formed by printing from blocks. Various methods have been used for this work — wood blocks in relief, engraved metal plates, stencil plates and even hand- painting; frequently two or more of these methods have been employed for the same pattern. The use of printed stuffs is of great antiquity among the Hindus and Chinese, and was certainly practised in western Europe in the I3th century, and perhaps earlier. The Victoria and Albert Museum has 13th-century specimens of block-printed silk made in Sicily, of beautiful design. Towards the end of the i4th century a great deal of block-printed linen was made in Flanders, and largely imported into England. Wall-papers did not come into common use in Europe till the 1 8th century, though they appear to have been used much earlier by the Chinese. A few rare examples exist in England which may be as early as the i6th century; these are imitations, generally in flock, of the fine old Florentine and Genoese cut velvets, and hence the style of the design in no way shows the date of the wall-paper, the same traditional patterns being reproduced for many years with little or no change. Machinery enabling paper to be made in long strips was not invented till 20 MURAL DECORATION the end of the i8th century, and up to that time wall-papers were printed on small square pieces of hand-made paper, difficult to hang, disfigured by numerous joints, and comparatively costly; on these accounts wall-papers were slow in superseding the older modes of mural decoration. A little work by Jackson of Battersea, printed in London in 1744, throws some light on the use of wall-papers at that time. He gives reduced copies of his designs, mostly taken from Italian pictures or antique sculpture during his residence in Venice. Instead of flowing patterns covering the wall, his designs are all pictures — land- scapes, architectural scenes or statues — treated as panels, with plain paper or painting between. They are all printed in oil, with wooden blocks worked with a rolling press, apparently an invention of his own. They are all in the worst possible taste, and yet are offered as great improvements on the Chinese papers which he says were then in fashion. Fig. 6 is a good English FIG. 6. — Early 18th-century Wail-Paper. (22 in. wide.) example of 18th-century wall-paper printed on squares of stout hand-made paper 22 in. wide. The design is apparently copied from an Indian chintz. In the iQth century in England, a great advance in the designing of wall-papers was made by William Morris and his school. 9. Painting. — This is naturally the most important and the most widely used of all forms of wall-decoration, as well as perhaps the earliest. Egypt (see EGYPT: Art and Archaeology) is the chief store- house of ancient specimens of this, as of almost all the arts. Owing to the intimate connexion between the platings, sculpture and painting of early times, the remarks above as to subjects and treatment under the head of Egyptian wall-sculpture will to a great extent apply also to the paintings. It is an important fact, which testifies to the antiquity of Egyptian civilization, that the earliest paintings, dating more than 4000 years before our era, are also the cleverest both in drawing and execution. In later times the influence of Egyptian art, especially in painting, was important even among distant nations. In the 6th century B.C. Egyptian colonists, introduced by Cambyses into Persepolis, influenced the painting and sculpture of the great Persian Empire and throughout the valley of the Euphrates. In a lesser degree the art of Babylon and Nineveh had felt considerable Egyptian influence several centuries earlier. The same influence affected the early art of the Greeks and the Etrurians, and it was not till the middle of the 5th century B.C. that the further development and perfecting of art in Greece obliterated the old traces of Egyptian mannerism. After the death of Alexander the Great, when Egypt came into the possession of the Lagidae (320 B.C.), the tide of influence flowed the other way, and Greek art modified though it did not seriously alter the characteristics of Egyptian painting and sculpture, which retained much of their early formalism and severity. Yet the increased sense of beauty, especially in the human face, derived from the Greeks was counterbalanced by loss of vigour; art under the Ptolemies became a dull copy ism of earlier traditions. The general scheme of mural painting in the buildings of ancient Egypt was complete and magnificent. Columns, mouldings and other architectural features were enriched with patterns in brilliant colours; the fiat wall -spaces were covered with figure-subjects, generally in horizontal bands, and the ceilings were ornamented with sacred symbols, such as the vulture or painted blue and studded with gold stars to symbolize the sky. The wall-paintings are executed in tempera on a thin skin (Taken from Lottie's Ride in Egypt.) FIG. 7. — Egyptian Wall-Painting of the Ancient Empire in the Bulak Museum. of fine lime, laid over the brick, stone or marble to form a smooth and slightly absorbent coat to receive the pigments, which were most brilliant in tone and of great variety of tint. Not employing fresco, the Egyptian artists were not restricted to " earth colours," but occasionally used purples, pinks and greens which would have been destroyed by fresh lime. The blue used is very beautiful, and is generally laid on in considerable body — it is frequently a " smalt " or deep-blue glass, coloured by copper oxide, finely powdered. Red and yellow ochre, carbon-black, and powdered chalk-white are most largely used. Though in the paintings of animals and birds considerable realism is often seen (fig. 7), yet for human figures certain conventional colours are employed, e.g. white for females' flesh, red for the males, or black to indicate people of negro race. Heads are painted in profile, and little or no shading is used. Considerable knowledge of harmony is shown in the arrangement of the colours; and otherwise harsh combinations of tints are softened and brought into keeping by thin separating lines of white or yellow. Though at first sight the general colouring, if seen in a museum, may appear crude, yet it should be remembered that the internal paintings were much softened by the dim light in Egyptian buildings, and those outside were subdued by contrast with the brilliant sunshine under which they were always seen. The rock-cut sepulchres of the Etrurians supply the only existing specimens of their mural painting; and, unlike the tombs of Egypt, only a small proportion appear to BtruKM have been decorated in this way. The actual dates paiatiag. of these paintings are very uncertain, but they range possibly from about the 8th century B.C. down to almost the Christian era. The tombs which possess these paintings are MURAL DECORATION 21 mostly square-shaped rooms, with slightly-arched or gabled roofs, excavated in soft sandstone or tufa hillsides. The earlier ones show Egyptian influence in drawing and in composition : they are broadly designed with flat unshaded tints, the faces in profile, except the eyes, which are drawn as if seen in front. Colours, as in Egypt, are used conventionally — male flesh red, white or pale yellow for the females, black for demons. In one respect these paintings differ from those of the Egyptians; few colours are used— red, brown, and yellow ochres, carbon-black, lime or chalk-white, and occasionally blue are the only pigments. The rock-walls are prepared by being covered with a thin skin of lime stucco, and lime or chalk is mixed in small quantities with all the colours; hence the restriction to " earth pigments," made necessary by the dampness of these subterranean chambers. The process employed was in fact a kind of fresco, though the stucco ground was not applied in small patches only sufficient for the day's work; the dampness of the rock was enough to keep the stucco skin moist, and so allow the necessary infiltration of colour from the surface. Many of these paintings when first discovered were fresh in tint and uninjured by time, but they are soon dulled by exposure to light. In the course of centuries great changes of style naturally took place; the early Egyptian influence, probably brought to Etruria through the Phoenician traders, was succeeded by an even more strongly-marked Greek influence — at first archaic and stiff, then developing into great beauty of drawing, and finally yielding to the Roman spirit, as the degradation of Greek art advanced under their powerful but inartistic Roman conquerors. Throughout this succession of styles — Egyptian, Greek and Graeco-Roman — there runs a distinct undercurrent of individu- ality due to the Etruscans themselves. This appears not only in the drawing but also in the choice of subjects. In addition to pictures of banquets with musicians and dancers, hunting and racing scenes, the workshops of different craftsmen and other domestic subjects, all thoroughly Hellenic in sentiment, other paintings occur which are very un-Greek in feeling. These represent the judgment and punishment of souls in a future life. Mantus, Charun and other infernal deities of the Rasena, hideous in aspect and armed with hammers, or furies depicted as black-bearded demons winged and brandishing live snakes, terrify or torture shrinking human souls. Others, not the earliest in date, represent human sacrifices, such as those at the tomb of Patroclus — a class of subjects which, though Homeric, appears rarely to have been selected by Greek painters. The constant import into Etruria of large quantities of fine Greek painted vases appears to have contributed to keep up the supremacy of Hellenic influence during many centuries, and by their artistic superiority to have prevented the development of a more original and native school of art. Though we now know Etruscan painting only from the tombs, yet Pliny mentions (H . N. xxxv. 3) that fine wall-paintings existed in his time, with colours yet fresh, on the walls of ruined temples at Ardea and Lanuvium, executed, he says, before the founding of Rome. As before men- tioned, the actual dates of the existing paintings are uncertain. It cannot therefore be asserted that any existing specimens are much older than 600 B.C., though some, especially at Veii, certainly appear to have the characteristics of more remote antiquity. The most important of these paintings have been discovered in the cemeteries of Veii, Caere, Tarquinii, Vulci, Cervetri and other Etruscan cities. Even in Egypt the use of colour does not appear to have been more universal than it was among the Greeks (see GREEK ART), Greek w^° aPPued 'lt freely to their marble statues and Paiatiag. reliefs, the whole of their buildings inside and out, as well as for the decoration of flat wall-surfaces. They appear to have cared little for pure form, and not to have valued the delicate ivory-like tint and beautiful texture of their fine Pentelic and Parian marbles, except as a ground for coloured ornament. A whole class of artists, called A-yaX/jdmoi' tyKavarai, were occupied in colouring marble sculpture, and their services were very highly valued.1 In seme cases, probably for the sake of 1 This process, circumlitio, is mentioned by Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 40). hiding the joints and getting a more absorbent surface, the marble, however pure and fine in texture, was covered with a thin skin of stucco made of mixed lime and powdered marble. An alabaster sarcophagus, found in a tomb near Corneto, and now in the Etruscan museum at Florence, is decorated outside with beautiful purely Greek paintings, executed on a stucco skin as hard and smooth as the alabaster. The pictures represent combats of the Greeks and Amazons. The colouring, though rather brilliant, is simply treated, and the figures are kept strictly to one plane without any attempt at complicated perspective. Other valuable specimens of Greek art, found at Herculaneum and now in the Naples Museum, are some small paintings, one of girls playing with dice, another of Theseus and the Minotaur. These are painted with miniature-like delicacy on the bare surface of marble slabs; they are almost monochromatic, and are of the highest beauty both in drawing and in gradations of shadow — quite unlike any of the Greek vase-paintings. The first-mentioned painting is signed AAEEANAPOS A6HNAI02. It is probable that the strictly archaic paintings of the Greeks, such as those of Polygnotus in the 5th century B.C., executed with few and simple colours, had much resemblance to those on vases, but Pliny is wrong when he asserts that, till the time of Apelles (c. 350-310 B.C.), the Greek painters only used black, white, red and yellow.2 Judging from the peculiar way in which the Greeks and their imitators the Romans used the names of colours, it appears that they paid more attention to tones and relations of colour than to actual hues. Thus most Greek and Latin colour-names are now untranslatable. Homer's " wine- like sea " (olvo»i/), Sophocles's " wine-coloured ivy " ((Ed. Col.), and Horace's " purpureus olor " probably refer less to what we should call colour than to the chromatic strength of the various objects and their more or less strong powers of reflecting light, either in motion or when at rest. Nor have we any word like Virgil's " flavus," which could be applied both to a lady's hair and to the leaf of an olive-tree.3 During the best periods of Greek art the favourite classes of subjects were scenes from poetry, especially Homer and con- temporary history. The names TnvaKoOriia] and trroa iromXij were given to many public buildings from their walls being covered with paintings. Additional interest was given to the historical subjects by the introduction of portraits; e.g. in the great picture of the battle of Marathon (490 B.C.), on the walls of the errod irotKtXij in Athens, portraits were given of the Greek generals Miltiades, Callimachus, and others. This picture was painted about forty years after the battle by Polygnotus and Micon. One of the earliest pictures recorded by Pliny (xxxv. 8) represented a battle of the Magnesians (c. 716 B.C.); it was painted by Bularchus, a Lydian artist, and bought at a high price by King Candaules. Many other important Greek historical paintings are mentioned by Pausanias and earlier writers. The Pompeian mosaic of the defeat of the Persians by Alexander is probably a Romanized copy from some celebrated Greek painting; it obviously was not designed for mosaic work. Landscape painting appears to have been unknown among the Greeks, even as a background to figure-subjects. The poems especially of Homer and Sophocles show that this was not through want of appreciation of the beauties of nature, but partly, probably, because the main object of Greek painting was to tell some definite story, and also from their just sense of artistic fitness, which prevented them from attempting in their mural decorations to disguise the flat solidity of the walls by delusive effects of aerial perspective and distance. It is interesting to note that even in the time of Alexander the Great the somewhat archaic works of the earlier painters were still appreciated. In particular Aristotle praises Polygnotus, * Pliny's remarks on subjects such as this should be received with caution. He was neither a scientific archaeologist nor a practical artist. s So also a meaning unlike ours is attached to Greek technical words — by rivm they meant, not " tone," but the gradations of light and shade, and by ApiMty/i the relations of colour. See Pliny, H. N. xxxv. 5 ; and Ruskin, Mod. Painters, pt. iv. cap. 13. 22 MURAL DECORATION both for his power of combining truth with idealization in his portraits and for his skill in depicting men's mental characteristics; on this account he calls him 6 i70o7Pos. Lucian too praises Polygnotus alike for his grace, drawing and colouring. Later painters, such as Zeuxis and Apelles, appear to have produced easel pictures more than mural paintings, and these, being easy to move, were mostly carried off to Rome by the early emperors. Hence Pausanias, who visited Greece in the time of Hadrian, mentions but few works of the later artists. Owing to the lack of existing specimens of Greek painting it would be idle to attempt an account of their technical methods, but no doubt those employed by the Romans described below were derived with the rest of their art from the Greeks. Speaking of their stucco, Pliny refers its superiority over that made by the Romans to the fact that it was always made of lime at least three years old, and that it was well mixed and pounded in a mortar before being laid on the wall; he is here speaking of the thick stucco in many coats, not of the thin skin mentioned above as being laid on marble. Greek mural painting, like their sculpture, was chiefly used to decorate temples and public buildings, and comparatively rarely either for tombs1 or private buildings— at least in the days of their early republican simplicity. A large number of Roman mural paintings (see also ROMAN ART) now exist, of which many were discovered in the private houses and baths of Pompeii, nearly all dating Painting, between A.D. 63, when the city was ruined by an earthquake, and A.D. 79, when it was buried by Vesuvius. A catalogue of these and similar paintings from Hercu- laneum and Stabiae, compiled by Professor Helbig, comprises 1 966 specimens. The excavations in the baths of Titus and other ancient buildings in Rome, made in the early part of the i6th century, excited the keenest interest and admiration among the painters of that time, and largely influenced the later art of the Renaissance. These paintings, especially the " grotesques " or fanciful patterns of scroll-work and pilasters mixed with semi-realistic foliage and figures of boys, animals and birds, designed with great freedom of touch and inventive power, seem to have fascinated Raphael during his later period, and many of his pupils and contemporaries. The " loggie " of the Vatican and of the Farnesina palace are full of carefully studied 16th-century reproductions of these highly decorative paintings. The excavations in Rome have brought to light some mural paintings of the ist century A.D., perhaps superior in execution even to the best of the Pompeian series (see Plate). The range of subjects found in Roman mural paintings is large — mythology, religious ceremonies, genre, still life and even landscape (the latter generally on a small scale, and treated in an artificial and purely decorative way), and lastly history. Pliny mentions several large and important historical paintings, such as those with which Valerius Maximus Messala decorated the walls of the Curia Hostilia, to commemorate his own victory over Hiero II. and the Carthaginians in Sicily in the 3rd century B.C. The earliest Roman painting recorded by Pliny was by Fabius, surnamed Pictor, on the walls of the temple of Salus, executed about 300 B.C. (H.N. xxxv. 4). Pliny (xxxv. i) laments the fact that the wealthy Romans of his time preferred the costly splendours of marble and por- phyry wall-linings to the more artistic decoration of paintings by good artists. Historical painting seems then to have gone out of fashion; among the numerous specimens now existing few from Pompeii represent historical subjects; one has the scene of Massinissa and Sophonisba before Scipio, and another of a riot between the people of Pompeii and Nocera, which happened 59 A.D. Mythological scenes, chiefly from Greek sources, occur most frequently: the myths of Eros and Dionysus are especial favourites. Only five or six relate to purely Roman mythology. 1 One instance only of a tomb-painting is mentioned by Pausanias (vii. 22). Some fine specimens have been discovered in the Crimea, but not of a very early date; see Stephani, Compte rendu, &c., (St Petersburg, 1878), &c. We have reason to think that some at least of the Pompeian pictures are copies, probably at third or fourth hand, from celebrated Greek originals. The frequently repeated subjects of Medea meditating the murder of her children and Iphigenia at the shrine of the Tauric Artemis suggest that the motive and composition were taken from the originals of these subjects by Timanthes. Those of lo and Argus, the finest example of which is in the Palatine " villa of Livia " and of Andromeda and Perseus, often repeated on Pompeian walls, may be from the originals by Nicias. In many cases these mural paintings are of high artistic merit, though they are probably not the work of the most distinguished painters of the time, but rather of a humbler class of decorators, who reproduced, without much original invention, stock designs out of some pattern-book. They are, however, all remarkable for the rapid skill and extreme " verve " and freedom of hand with which the designs are, as it were, flung on to the walls with few but effective touches. Though in some cases the motive and composition are superior to the execution, yet many of the paintings are remarkable both for their realistic truth and technical skill. The great painting of Ceres from Pompeii, now in the Naples Museum, is a work of the highest merit. In the usual scheme of decoration the broad wall-surfaces are broken up into a series of panels by pilasters, columns, or other architectural forms. Some of the panels contain pictures with figure-subjects; others have conventional ornament, or hanging festoons of fruit and flowers. The lower part of the wall is painted one plain colour, forming a dado; the upper part some- times has a well-designed frieze of flowing ornaments. In the better class of painted walls the whole is kept flat in treatment, and is free from too great subdivision, but in many cases great want of taste is shown by the introduction of violent effects of architectural perspective, and the space is broken up by ccm- plicated schemes of design, studded with pictures in varying scales which have little relation to their surroundings. The colouring is on the whole pleasant and harmonious — unlike the usual chromo-lithographic copies. Black, yellow, or a rich deep red are the favourite colours for the main ground of the walls, the pictures in the panels being treated separately, each with its own background. An interesting series of early Christian mural paintings exists in various catacombs, especially those of Rome and Naples. They are of value both as an important link in the Egrly history of art and also as throwing light on the Christian mental state of the early Christians, which was dis- Painting la tinctly influenced by the older faith. Thus in the ltaly' earlier paintings of about the 4th century we find Christ repre- sented as a beardless youth, beautiful as the artist could make him, with a lingering tradition of Greek idealization, in no degree like the " Man of Sorrows " of medieval painters, but rather a kind of genius of Christianity in whose fair outward form the peace and purity of the new faith were visibly symbolized, just as certain distinct attributes were typified in the persons of the gods of ancient Greece. The favourite early subject, " Christ the Good Shepherd " (fig. 8), is represented as Orpheus playing on his lyre to a circle of beasts, the pagan origin of the picture being shown by the Phrygian cap and by the presence of lions, panthers and other incongruous animals among the listen- ing sheep. In other cases Christ is depicted standing with a sheep borne on His shoulders like Hermes Criophoros or Hermes Psychopompos — favourite Greek subjects, especially the former, a statue of which Pausanias (ix. 22) mentions as existing at Tanagra in Boeotia. Here again the pagan origin of the type is shown by the presence in the catacomb paintings of the pan- pipes and pedum, special attributes of Hermes, but quite foreign to the notion of Christ. Though in a degraded form, a good deal survives in some of these paintings, especially in the earlier ones, of the old classical grace of composition and beauty of drawing, notably in the above-mentioned representations where old models were copied without any adaptation to their new meaning. Those of the sth and 6th centuries follow the classical MURAL DECORATION A WALL PAINTING IN THE MUSEO NAZIONALE. AT ROME, FROM A ROMAN VILLA DISCOVERED IN 1878, EARLY IMPERIAL STYLE MURAL DECORATION lines, though in a rapidly deteriorating style, until the introduc- tion of a foreign — the Byzantine — element, which created a fresh starting-point on different lines. The old naturalism and survival of classical freedom of drawing is replaced by stiff, conventionally hieratic types, superior in dignity and strength to the feeble compositions produced by the degradation into which the native art of Rome had fallen. The designs of this second period of Christian art are similar to those of the mosaics, FIG. 8. — Painted Vault from the Catacombs of St.Callixtus, Rome. In the centre Orpheus, to represent Christ the Good Shepherd, and round are smaller paintings of various types of Christ. such as many at Ravenna, and also to the magnificently illumi- nated MSS. For some centuries there was little change or development in this Byzantine style of art, so that it is impossible in most cases to be sure from internal evidence of the date of any painting. This to some extent applies also to the works of the earlier or pagan school, though, roughly speaking, it may be said that the least meritorious pictures are the latest in date. These catacomb paintings range over a long space of time; some may possibly be of the ist or 2nd century, e.g. those in the cemetery of Domitilla, Rome; others are as late as the oth century, e.g. some full-length figures of St Cornelius and St Cyprian in the catacomb of St Callixtus, under which earlier paintings may be traced. In execution they somewhat resemble the Etruscan tomb-paintings; the walls of the catacomb passages and chambers, excavated in soft tufa, are covered with a thin skin of white stucco, and on that the mural and ceiling paintings are simply executed in earth colours. The favourite subjects of the earliest paintings are scenes from the Old Testament which were supposed to typify events in the life of Christ, such as the sacrifice of Isaac (Christ's death), Jonah and the whale (the Resurrection), Moses striking the rock, or pointing to the manna (Christ the water of life, and the Eucharist), and many others. The later paintings deal more with later subjects, either events in Christ's life or figures of saints and the miracles they performed. A fine series of these exists in the iower church of S. Clemente in Rome, apparently dating from the 6th to the loth centuries; among these are representations of the passion and death of Christ — subjects never chosen by the earlier Christians, except as dimly foreshadowed by the Old Testament types. When Christ Himself is depicted in the early catacomb paintings it is in glory and power, not in His human weakness and suffering. Other early Italian paintings exist on the walls of the church of the Tre Fontane near Rome, and in the Capella di S. Urbano alia Caffarella, executed in the early part of the nth century. The atrium of S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, Rome, and the church of the Quattro Santi Incoronati have mural paintings of the first half of the I3th century, which show no artistic improve- ment over those at S. Clemente four or five centuries older. It was not in fact till the second half cf the I3th century that stiff traditional Byzantine forms and colouring began to be superseded by the revival of native art in Italy by the painters of Florence, Pisa and Siena. During the fiist thirteen centuries of the Christian era mural painting appears to have been for the most part confined to the repre- sentation of sacred subjects. It is remarkable that during the earlier centuries council after council of the Christian Church forbade the painting of figure-subjects, and especially those of any Person of the Trinity; but in vain. In spite of the zeal of bishops and others, who sometimes with their own hands defaced the pictures of Christ on the walls of the churches, in spite of threats of excommunication, the for- bidden paintings by degrees became more numerous, till the walls of almost every church throughout Christendom were decorated with whole series of pictured stories. The useless prohibition was becoming obsolete when, towards the end of the 4th century, the learned Paulinus, bishop of Nola, ordered the two basilicas which he had built at Fondi and Nola to be adorned with wall- paintings of sacred subjects, with the special object, as he says, of instructing and refining the ignorant and drunken people. These painted histories were in fact the books of the unlearned, and we can now hardly realize their value as the chief mode of religious teaching in ages when none but the clergy could read or write. During the middle ages, just as long before among the ancient Greeks, coloured decoration was used in the widest possible manner not only for the adornment of flat walls, English but also for the enrichment of sculpture and all the Mural fittings and architectural features of buildings, P'fattag. whether the material to be painted was plaster, stone, marble or wood. It was only the damp and frosts of northern climates that to some extent limited the external use of colour to the less exposed parts of the outsides of buildings. The varying tints and texture of smoothly worked stone appear to have given no pleasure to the medieval eye; and in the rare cases in which the poverty of some country church prevented its walls from being adorned with painted ornaments or pictures the whole surface of the stonework inside, mouldings and carving as well as flat wall-spaces, was covered with a thin coat of whitewash. Internal rough stonework was invariably concealed by stucco, forming a smooth ground for possible future paintings. Un- happily a great proportion of mural paintings have been de- stroyed, though many in a more or less mutilated state still exist in England. It is difficult (and doubly so since the so-called " restoration " of most old buildings) to realize the splendour of effect once possessed by every important medieval church. From the tiled floor to the roof all was one mass of gold and colour. The brilliance of the mural paintings and richly coloured sculpture and mouldings was in harmony with the splendour of the oak-work — screens, stalls, and roofs — all decorated with gilding and painting, while the light, passing through stained glass, softened and helped to combine the whole into one mass of decorative effect. Colour was boldly applied everywhere, and thus the patchy effect was avoided which is so often the result of the modern timid and partial use of painted ornament. Even the figure-sculpture was painted in a strong and realistic manner, sometimes by a wax encaustic process, probably the same as the circumlitio of classical times. In the accounts for expenses in decorating Orvieto cathedral wax is a frequent item among the materials used for painting. In one place it is mentioned that wax was supplied to Andrea Pisano (in 1345) for the decoration of the beautiful reliefs in white marble on the lower part of the west front. From the nth to the i6th century the lower part of the walls, generally 6 to 8 ft. from the floor, was painted with a dado — the favourite patterns till the I3th century being either a sort of sham masonry with a flower in each rectangular space (fig. 9), or a conventional representation of a curtain with 24 iegula.1 folds stiffly treated, pictures with figure-subjects MURAL DECORATION FIG. 9. — Wall-Paintingof the I3th century. " Masonry pattern." Above this dado ranges of were painted in tiers one above the other, each picture frequently surrounded by a painted frame with arch and gable of architectural design. Painted bands of chevron or other geometrical ornament till the I3th century, and flowing ornament afterwards, usually divide the tiers of pic- tures horizontally and form the top and bottom boundaries of the dado. In the case of a church, the end walls usually have figures to a larger scale. On the east wall of the nave over the chancel arch there was generally a large painting of the " Doom " or Last Judgment. One of the commonest subjects is a colossal figure of St Chris- topher (fig. 10) usually on the nave wail opposite the principal FIG. 10. — Wall-Painting of St Christopher. (Large life-size.) entrance — selected because the sight of a picture of this saint was supposed to bring good luck for the rest of the day. Figures were also often painted on the jambs of the windows and on the piers and soffit of the arches, especially that opening into the chancel. The little Norman church at Kempley in Gloucestershire (date about noo) has perhaps the best-preserved specimen of the com- plete early decoration of a chancel.1 The north and south walls are occupied by figures of the twelve apostles in architectural niches, six on each side. The east wall had single figures of saints at the sides of the central window, and the stone barrel vault is covered with a representation of St John's apocalyptic vision — Christ in majesty surrounded by the evangelistic beasts, the seven candlesticks and other figures. The chancel arch itself and the jambs and mouldings of the windows have stiff geometrical designs, and over the arch, towards the nave, is a large picture of the " Doom." The whole scheme is very complete, no part of the internal plaster or stonework being undecorated with colour. Though the drawing is rude, the figures and their drapery are treated broadly and with dignity. Simple earth colours are used, painted in tempera on a plain white ground, which covers alike both the plaster of the rough walls and the smooth stone of the arches and jambs. In the I3th century the painters of England reached a high point of artistic power and technical skill, so that paintings were produced by native artists equal, if not superior, to those of the same period anywhere on the Continent. The central paintings on the walls of the chapter-house and on the retable of the high altar of Westminster Abbey are not surpassed by 1 See Archoeologia, vol. xlvi. (1880). any of the smaller works even of such men as Cimabue and Duccio di Buoninsegna, who were living when these Westminster paintings were executed. Unhappily, partly through the poverty and anarchy brought about by the French wars and the Wars of the Roses, the development of art in England made little progress after the beginning of the I4th century, and it FIG. 1 1 . — i sth-century English Painting — St John the Evangelist. was not till a time when the renaissance of art in Italy had fallen into decay that its influence reached the British shores. In the 1 5th century some beautiful work, somewhat affected by Flemish influence, was produced in England (fig. n), chiefly in the form of figures painted on the oak panels of chancel and chapel screens, especially in Norfolk and Suffolk; but these cannot be said to rival the works of the Van Eycks and other painters of that time in Flanders. To return to the i^th century, the culminating period of English art in painting and sculpture, much was owed to Henry III.'s love for and patronage of the fine arts; he employed a large number of painters to decorate his various castles and palaces, especially the palace of Westminster, one large hall of which was known as the " painted MURAL DECORATION chamber " from the rovvs of fine pictures with which its walls were covered. After the i3th century the " masonry pattern " was disused for the lower parts of walls, and the chevrony and other stiff patterns for the borders were replaced by more flowing designs. The character of the painted figures became less monumental in style; greater freedom of drawing and treatment was adopted, and they cease to recall the archaic majesty and grandeur of the Byzantine mosaics. It may be noted that during the I4th century wall-spaces unoccupied by figure-subjects were often covered by graceful flowing patterns, drawn with great freedom and rather avoiding geo- metrical repetition. Fig. 12, from the church of Stanley St Leonard's, Gloucestershire, is a good character- istic specimen of 14th-century decora- tion; it is on the walls of the chancel, filling up the spaces between the painted figures; the flowers are blue, and the lines red on a white ground. In some cases the motive of the design is taken from encaustic tiles, : » * Bengeo Church, Herts, where tne waU ls divided into squares, each containing an heraldic lion. This imitative notion occurs during all periods — masonry, hanging curtains, tiles and architectural features such as niches and canopies being very frequently represented, though always in a simple decorative fashion with no attempt at actual deception — not probably from any fixed principle that shams were wrong, but because the good taste of the medieval painters taught them that a flat unrealistic treatment gave the best and most decorative effect. Thus in the isth and 1 6th centuries the commonest forms of unpictorial wall- decoration were various patterns taken from the beautiful damasks and cut velvets of Sicily, Florence, Genoa and other places in Italy, some form of the " pine-apple " or rather " arti- choke " pattern being the favourite (fig. 13), a design which, tury Wall-Painting. FIG. 13. — 15th-century Wall-Painting, taken from a Genoese or Florentine velvet design. developed partly from Oriental sources, and coming to perfection at the end of the i$th century, was copied and reproduced in textiles, printed stuffs and wall-papers with but little change down to the present century — a remarkable instance of survival in design. Fig. 14 is a specimen of isth-century English decora- tive painting, copied from a 14th-century Sicilian silk damask. Diapers, powderings with flowers, . sacred monograms and sprays of blossom were frequently used to ornament large surfaces in a simple way. Many of these are extremely beautiful (fig. IS)- Subjects of Medieval Wall- Paintings. — In churches and domestic buildings alike the usual subjects represented on the walls were specially selected for their moral and religious teaching, either FIG. 14. — 15th-century Wall-Painting, the design copied from a 13th-century Sicilian silk damask. stories from the Bible and Apocrypha, or from the lives of saints, or, lastly, symbolical representations setting forth some important theological truth, such as figures of virtues and vices, or the Scala humanae salyationis, showing the. perils and temptations of the human soul in its struggle to escape hell and gain paradise — a rude foreshadowing of the great scheme worked out with such perfection by Dante in his Commedia. A fine example of this subject exists on the walls of Chaldon church, Surrey.1 In the selection of saints for paintings in England, those of English origin are naturally most frequently represented, and different districts had certain local favourites. St Thomas of Canterbury was one of the most widely popular; but few examples now remain, owing to Henry VIII.'s special dislike to this saint and the strict orders that were issued for all pictures of him to be destroyed. For a similar reason most paintings of saintly popes were obliterated. Methods of Execution. — Though Eraclius, who probably wrote before the loth century, mentions the use of an oil-medium, yet till about the I3th century mural paintings appear to have been exe- cuted in the most simple FlG i5._powderings used in i5th- way, in tempera mainly century Wall Painting, with earth colours applied on dry stucco; even when a smooth stone surface was to be painted a thin coat of whitening or fine gesso was laid as a ground. In the 131(1 century, and perhaps earlier, oil was com- monly used both as a medium for the pigments and also to make a varnish to cover and fix tempera paintings. The Van Eycks introduced the use of dryers of a better kind than had yet been used, and so largely extended the application of oil-painting. Before their time it seems to have been the custom to dry wall- paintings laboriously by the use of charcoal braziers, if they were in a position where the sun could not shine upon them. This is 'See Collections of Surrey Archaeol. Soc. vol. v. pt. ii. (1871). 26 MURANO specially recorded in the valuable series of accounts for the expenses of wall-paintings in the royal palace of Westminster during the reign of Henry III., printed in Vetusta monumenta, vol. vi. (1842). All the materials used, including charcoal to dry the paintings and the wages paid to the artists, are given. The materials mentioned are plumbum album el rubeum, viridus, vermilio, synople, acre, azura, aurum, argentum, collis, oleum, vernix. Two foreign painters were employed — Peter of Spain and William of Florence — at sixpence a day, but the English painters seem to FIG. 16. — Pattern in Stamped and Moulded Plaster, decorated with gilding and transparent colours; 15th-century work. (Full size.) have done most of the work and received higher pay. William, an English monk in the adjoining Benedictine abbey of West- minster, received two shillings "a day. Walter of Durham and various members of the Otho family, royal goldsmiths and moneyers, worked for many years on the adornment of Henry III.'s palace and were well paid for their skill. Some fragments of paintings from the royal chapel of St Stephen are now in the British Museum. They are delicate and carefully painted subjects from the Old Testament, in rich colours, each with explanatory inscrip- tion underneath. The scale is small, the figures being scarcely a foot high. Their method of execution is curious. First the smooth stone wall was covered with a coat of red, painted in oil, probably to keep back the damp; on that a thin skin of fine gesso (stucco) has been applied, and the outlines of the figures marked with a point; the whole of the background, crowns, borders of dresses, and other ornamental parts have then been modelled and stamped with very minute patterns in slight relief, impressed on the surface of the gesso while it was yet soft. The figures have then been painted, apparently in tempera, gold leaf has been applied to the stamped reliefs, and the whole has been covered with an oil varnish. It is difficult to realize the labour required to cover large halls such as the above chapel and the " painted chamber," the latter about 83 ft. by 27 ft., with this style of decoration. In many cases the grounds were entirely covered with shining .metal leaf, over which the paintings were executed; those parts, such as the draperies, where the metallic lustre was wanted, were painted in oil with transparent colours, while the flesh was painted in opaque tempera. The effect of the bright metal shining through the rich colouring is magnificent. This minuteness of much of the medieval wall-decoration is remarkable. Large wall-surfaces and intricate mouldings were often completely covered by elaborate gesso patterns in relief of almost microscopic delicacy (fig. 1 6). The cost of stamps for this is among the items in the Westminster accounts. These patterns when set and dry were further adorned with gold and colours. So also with the architectural painting; the artist was not content simply to pick out the various members of the mouldings in different colours, but he also frequently covered each bead or fillet with painted flowers and other patterns, as delicate as those in an illuminated MS. — so minute and highly- finished that they are almost invisible at a little distance, but yet add greatly to the general richness of effect. All this is neglected in modern reproductions of medieval painting, in which both touch and colour are coarse and harsh — caricatures of the old work, such as disfigure the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, and many cathedrals in France, Germany and England. Gold was never used in large quantities without the ground on which it was laid being broken up by some such delicate reliefs as that shown in fig. 16, so its effect was never dazzling, (W. Mo.; J. H. M.) Mural painting in England fell into disuse in the i6th century, until attempts to revive it were made in the igth century. For domestic purposes wood panelling, stamped leather, and tapestry were chiefly used as wall-coverings. In the reign of Henry VIII., probably in part through Holbein's influence, a rather coarse tempera wall-painting, German in style, appears to have been common.1 A good example of arabesque painting of this period in black and white, rudely though boldly drawn and Holbeinesquein character, was discovered in 1881 behind the panelling in one of the canons' houses at Westminster. Other examples exist at Haddon Hall (Derbyshire) and elsewhere. Many efforts have been made in England to revive fresco painting. The Houses of Parliament bear witness to this, the principal works there being those of William Dyce and Daniel Maclise. That of G. F. Watts, whose easel work also is generally distinguished by its mural feeling, is full of serious purpose and dignity of conception. " Buono fresco " (the painting in tempera upon a freshly laid ground of plaster while wet), " spirit fresco " or Gambier-Parry method (the painting with a spirit medium upon a specially prepared plaster or canvas ground 2) , and "water- glass " painting (wherein the method is similar to water-colour painting on a prepared plastered wall, the painting when finished being covered with a chemical solution which hardens and protects the surface), have all been tried. Other processes are also in the experimental stage, such as that known as Keim's, which has been successfully tried by Mrs Merritt in a series of mural paintings in a church at Chilworth. Unless, however, some means can be found of enabling the actual painted wall to resist the natural dampness of the English climate, it does not seem likely that true fresco painting can ever be naturalized in Great Britain. Of two of the few modern artists entrusted with important mural work in England, Ford Madox Brown and Frederick J. Shields, the former distinguished especially for his fine series of mural paintings in the Manchester town-hall, in the later paintings there adopted the modern method of painting the design upon canvas in flat oil colour, using a wax medium, and afterwards affixing the canvas to the wall by means of white lead. This is a usual method with modern decorators. Mr Shields has painted the panels of his scheme of mural decoration in the chapel of the Ascension at Bayswater, London, also upon canvas in oils, and has adopted the method of fixing them to slabs of slate facing the waD so as to avoid the risk of damp from the wall itself. Friezes and frieze panels or ceilings in private houses are usually painted upon canvas in oil and affixed to the wall or inserted upon their strainers, like pictures in a frame. (Walter Crane has used fibrous plaster panels, painting in ordinary oil colours with turpentine as a medium, as in Redcross Hall.) Recently there has been a revival of tempera painting, and a group of painters are producing works on panel and canvas painted in tempera or fresco secco, with yolk of egg as a medium, according to the practice of the early Italian painters and the directions of Cennino Cennini. A pure luminous quality of colour is produced, valuable in mural decoration and also- durable, especially under varnish. (W. CR.) MURANO (anc. Ammariuno), an island in the Venetian lagoon abouj i m. north of Venice. It is 5 m. in circumference, and a large part of it is occupied by gardens. It contained 5436 inhabitants in 1901, but was once much more populous than it is at present, its inhabitants numbering 30,000. It was a favourite resort of the Venetian nobility before they began to build their villas on the mainland; land in the isth and i6th centuries its gardens and casinos, of which some traces remain, were famous. It was here that the literary clubs of the Vigilanti, the Studiosi and the Occulti, used to meet. 'Shakespeare, Henry IV., Part. II. act n. sc. i: " Falstaff. And for thy walls, a pretty slight drollery, or the story of the prodigal, or the German hunting in waterwork, is worth a thousand of these bed-hangings and these fly-bitten tapestries." 1 It was in this method that the lunettes by Lord Leighton at the Victoria and Albert Museum were painted on the plaster wall. The same painter produced a fresco at Lyndhurst Church, Hants. MURAS— MURAT 27 The town is built upon one broad main canal, where the tidal current runs with great force, and upon several smaller ones. The cathedral, S. Donato, is a fine basilica, of the izth century. The pavement (of mi) is as richly inlaid as that of St Mark's, and the mosaics cf the tribune are remarkable. The exterior of the tribune is beautiful, and has been successfully restored. The church of St Peter the Martyr (1509) contains a fine picture by Gentile Bellini and other works, and S. Maria degli Angeli also contains several interesting pictures. Murano has from ancient times been celebrated for its glass manufactories. When and how the art was introduced is obscure, but there are notices of it as early as the nth century; and in 1250 Christo- foro Briani attempted the imitation of agate and chalcedony. From the labours of his pupil Miotto sprang that branch of the glass trade which is concerned with the imitation of gems. In the 1 5th century the first crystals were made, and in the 1 7th the various gradations of coloured and iridescent glass were invented, together with the composition called " aventu- rine "; the manufacture of beads is now a main branch of the trade. The art of the glass-workers was taken under the protection of the Government in 1275, and regulated by a special code of laws and privileges; two fairs were held annually, and the export of all materials, such as alum and sand, which enter into the composition of glass was absolutely forbidden. With the decay of Venice the importance of the Murano glass-works declined; but A. Salviati (1816-1890) rediscovered many of the old processes, and eight firms are engaged in the trade, the most renewed being the Venezia Murano Company and Salviati. The municipal museum contains a collection of glass illustrating the history and progress of the art. The island of Murano was first peopled by the inhabitants of Altino. It originally enjoyed independence under the rule of its tribunes and judges, and was one of the twelve confederate islands of the lagoons. In the i2th century the doge Vital Micheli II. incorporated Murano in Venice and attached it to the Sestiere of S. Croce. From that date it was governed by a Venetian nobleman with the title of podesta whose office lasted sixteen months. Murano, however, retained its original constitution of a greater and a lesser council for the transaction of municipal business, and also the right to coin gold and silver as well as its judicial powers. The interests of the town were watched at the ducal palace by a nuncio and a solicitor; and this constitution remained in force till the fall of the republic. See Venezia e le sue Lagune; Paoletti, II Fiore di Venezia; Bus- solin, Guida alle fabbriche vetrarie di Murano; Romania, Storia documentata di Venezia, i. 41. MURAS, a tribe of South-American Indians living on the Amazon, from the Madeira to the Purus. Formerly a powerful people, they were defeated by their neighbours the Mundrucus in 1788. They are now partly civilized. Each village has a chief whose office is hereditary, but he has little power. The Muras are among the lowest of all Amazonian tribes. MURAT, JOACHIM (1767-1815), king of Naples, younger son of an innkeeper at La Bastide-Fortuniere in the department of Lot, France, was born on the 25th of March 1767. Destined for the priesthood, he obtained a bursary at the college of Cahors, proceeding afterwards to the university of Toulouse, Tjhere he studied canon law. His vocation, however, was certainly not sacerdotal, and after dissipating his money he enlisted in a cavalry regiment. In 1789 he had attained the rank of martchal des logis, but in 1790 he was dismissed the regiment for in- subordination. After a period of idleness, he was enrolled, through the good offices of J. B. Cavaignac, in the new Constitu- tional Guard of Louis XVI. (1791). In Paris he gained a reputa- tion for his good looks, his swaggering attitude, and the violence of his revolutionary sentiments. On the 3Oth of May 1792, the guard having been disbanded, he was appointed sub-lieutenant in the 2ist Chasseurs a cheval, with which regiment he served in the Argonne and the Pyrenees, obtaining in the latter campaign the command of a squadron. After the gth Thermidor, however, and the proscription of the Jacobins, with whom he had conspicuously identified himself, he fell under suspicion and was recalled from the front. Returning to Paris (1795), he made the acquaintance of Napoleon Bonaparte, another young officer out of employment, who soon gained a complete ascendancy over his vain, ambitious and unstable nature. On the I3th Vendemiaire, when Bonaparte, commissioned by Barras, beat down with cannon the armed insurrection of the Paris sections against the Convention, Murat was his most active and courageous lieutenant, and was rewarded by the lieutenant-colonelcy of the 2 ist Chasseurs and the appoint- ment of first aide de camp to General Bonaparte in Italy. In the first battles of the famous campaign of 1796 Murat so distinguished himself that he was chosen to carry the captured flags to Paris. He was promoted to be general of brigade, and returned to Italy in time to be of essential service to Bonaparte at Bassano, Corona and Fort St Giorgio, where he was wounded. He was then sent on a diplomatic mission to Genoa, but returned in time to be present at Rivoli. In the advance into Tirol in the summer of 1797 he commanded the vanguard, and by his passage of the Tagliamento hurried on the preliminaries of Leoben. In 1798 he was for a short time commandant at Rome, and then accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. At the battle of the Pyramids he led his first famous cavalry charge, and so distinguished himself in Syria that he was made general of division (October, 1 799). He returned to France with Bonaparte, and on the i8th Brumaire led into the orangery of Saint Cloud the sixty grenadiers whose appearance broke up the Council of Five Hundred. After the success of the coup d'ttat he was made commandant of the consular guard, and on the 2oth of January 1800 he married Caroline Bonaparte, youngest sister of the first consul. He commanded the French cavalry at the battle of Marengo, and was afterwards made governor in the Cisalpine Republic. As commander of the army of observa- tion in Tuscany he forced the Neapolitans to evacuate the Papal States and to accept the treaty of Florence (March 28, 1801). In January 1804 he was given the post of governor of Paris, and in this capacity appointed the military commission by which the due d'Enghien was tried and shot (March 20); in May he was made marshal of the empire; in February 1805 he was made grand admiral, with the title of prince, and invested with the grand eagle of the Legion of Honour. He commanded the cavalry of the Grand Army in the German campaign of 1805, and was sc conspicuous at Austerlitz that Napoleon made him grand duke of Berg and Cleves (March 15, 1806). He com- manded the cavalry at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, and in 1808 was made general-in-chief of the French aimies in Spain. He entered Madrid on the 25th of March, and on the 2nd of May suppressed an insurrection in the city. He did much to prepare the events which ended in the abdication of Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. at Bayonne; but the hopes he had cherished of himself receiving the crown of Spain were disappointed. On the ist of August, however, he was appointed by Napoleon to the throne of Naples, vacated by the transference of Joseph Bonaparte to Spain. King Joachim Napoleon, as he styled himself, entered Naples in September, his handsome presence and open manner gaining him instantaneous popularity. Almost his first act as king was to attack Capri, which he wrested from the British; but, this done, he returned to Naples and devoted himself to establish- ing his kingship according to his ideas, a characteristic blend of the vulgarity of a fdnenu with the essential principles of the Revolution. He dazzled the lazzaroni with' the extravagant splendour of his costumes; he set up a sumptuous court, created a new nobility, nominated marshals. With an eye to the over- throw of his legitimate rival in Sicily, he organized a large army and even a fleet; but he also swept away the last relics of the effete feudal system and took efficient measures for suppressing brigandage. From the first his relations with Napoleon were strained. The emperor upbraided him sarcastically for his " monkey tricks " (singeries); Murat ascribed to the deliberate ill-will of the French generals who served with him, and even to Napoleon, the failure of his attack on Sicily in 1810. He resented MURAT his subordination to the emperor, and early began his pose as an Italian king by demanding the withdrawal of the French troops from Naples and naturalization as Neapolitans of all Frenchmen in the service of the state (1811). Napoleon, of course, met this demand with a curt refusal. A breach between the brothers- in-law was only averted by the Russian campaign of 1812 and Napoleon's invitation to Murat to take command of the cavalry in the Grand Army. This was a call which appealed to all his strongest military instincts, and he obeyed it. During the disastrous retreat he showed his usual headstrong courage; but in the middle of December he suddenly threw up his command and returned to Naples. The reason of this was the suspicion, which had been growing on him for two years past, that Napoleon was preparing for him the fate of the king of Holland, and that his own wife, Queen Caroline, was plotting with the emperor for his dethronement. To Marshal Davout, who pointed out to him that he was only king of Naples " by grace of the emperor and the blood of Frenchmen," he replied that he was king of Naples as the emperor of. Austria was emperor of Austria, and that he could do as he liked. He was, in fact, already dreaming of exchanging his position of a vassal king of the French Empire for that of a national Italian king. In the enthusiastic reception that awaited him on his return to Naples on the 4th of February there was nothing to dispel these illusions. All the Italian parties flocked round him, flattering and cajoling him: the patriots, because he seemed to them loyal and glorious enough to assume the task of Italian unification; the partisans of the dis- possessed princes, because they looked upon him as a convenient instrument and as simple enough to be made an easy dupe. From this moment dates the importance of Murat in the history of Europe during the next few years. He at once, without consulting his minister of foreign affairs, despatched Prince Cariati on a confidential mission to Vienna; if Austria would secure the renunciation of his rights by King Ferdinand and guarantee the possession of the kingdom of Naples to himself, he would place his army at her disposal and give up his claims to Sicily. Austria herself, however, had not as yet broken definitively with Napoleon, and before she openly joined the Grand Alliance, after the illusory congress of Prague, many things had happened to make Murat change his mind. He was offended by Napoleon's bitter letters and by tales of his slighting comments on himself; he was alarmed by the emperor's scarcely veiled threats; but after all he was a child of the Revolution and a born soldier, with all the soldier's instinct of loyalty to a great leader, and he grasped eagerly at any excuse for believing that Napoleon, in the event of victory, would maintain him on his throne. Then came the emperor's advance into Germany, supported as yet by his allies of the Rhenish Confederation. On the fatal field of Leipzig Murat once more faught on Napo- leon's side, leading the French squadrons with all his old valour and dash. But this crowning catastrophe was too much for his wavering faith. On the evening of the i6th of October, the first day of the battle, Metternich found means to open a separate negotiation with him: Great Britain and Austria would, in the event of Murat's withdrawal from Napoleon's army and refusal to send reinforcements to the viceroy of Italy, secure the cession to him of Naples by King Ferdinand, guarantee him in its possession, and obtain for him further advantages in Italy. To accept the Austrian advances seemed now his only chance of continuing to be a king. At Erfurt he asked and obtained the emperor's leave to return to Naples; " our adieux," he said, " were not over-cordial." He reached Naples on the 4th of November and at once informed the Austrian envoy of his wish to join the Allies, suggesting that the Papal States, with the exception of Rome and the surrounding district, should be made over to him as his reward. On the 3ist of December Count Neipperg, after- wards the lover of the empress Marie Louise, arrived at Naples with powers to treat. The result was the signature, on the nth of January 1814, of a treaty by which Austria guaranteed to Murat the throne of Naples and promised her good offices to secure the assent of the other Allies. Secret additional articles stipulated that Austria would use her good offices to secure the renunciation by Ferdinand of his rights to Naples, in return for an indemnity to hasten the conclusion of peace between Naples and Great Britain, and to augment the Neapolitan kingdom by territory embracing 400,000 souls at the expense of the states of the Church. The project of the treaty having been communicated to Castlereagh, he replied by expressing the willingness of the British government to conclude an armistice with " the person exercising the government of Naples " (Jan. 22), and this was accordingly signed on the 3rd of February by Bentinck. It was clear that Great Britain had no intention of ultimately recognizing Murat's right to reign. As for Austria, she would be certain that Murat's own folly would, sooner or later, give her an opportunity for repudiating her engagements. For the present the Neapolitan alliance would be invaluable to the Allies for the purpose of putting an end to the French dominion in Italy. The plot was all but spoilt by the prince royal of Sicily, who in an order of the day announced to his soldiers that their legitimate sovereign had not renounced his rights to the throne of Naples (Feb. 20); from the Austrian point of view it was compromised by a proclamation issued by Bentinck at Leghorn on the i4th of March, in which he called on the Italians to rise in support of the " great cause of their fatherland." From Dijon Castlereagh promptly wrote to Bentinck (April 3) to say that the proclamation of the prince of Sicily must be disavowed, and that if King Ferdinand did not behave properly Great Britain would recognize' Murat's title. A letter from Metternich to Marshal Bellegarde, of the same place and date, insisted that Bentinck 's operations must be altered; the last thing that Austria desired was an Italian national rising. It was, indeed, by this time clear to the allied powers that Murat's ambition had o'erleaped the bounds set for them. " Murat, a true son of the Revolution," wrote Metternich, in the same letter, " did not hesitate to form projects of con- quest when all his care should have been limited to simple calculations as to how to preserve his throne. ... He dreamed of a partition of Italy between him and us. ... When we refused to annex all Italy north of the Po, he saw that his calculations were wrong, but refused to abandon his ambitions. His attitude is most suspicious." " Press the restoration of the grand-duke in Tuscany," wrote Castlereagh to Bentinck; " this is the true touchstone of Murat's intentions. We must not suffer him to carry out his plan of extended dominion; but neither must we break with him and so abandon Austria to his augmented intrigues." Meanwhile, Murat had formally broken with Napoleon, and on the i6th of January the French envoy quitted Naples. But the treason by which he hoped to save his throne was to make its loss inevitable. He had betrayed Napoleon, only to be made the cat's-paw of the Allies. Great Britain, even when con- descending to negotiate with him, had never recognized his title; she could afford to humour Austria by holding out hopes of ultimate recognition, in order to detach him from Napoleon; for Austria alone of the Allies was committed to him, and Castle- reagh well knew that, when occasion should arise, her obliga- tions would not be suffered to hamper her interests. With the downfall of Napoleon Murat's defection had served its turn; moreover, his equivocal conduct during the campaign in Italy1 had blunted the edge of whatever gratitude the powers may have been disposed to feel; his ambition to unite all Italy south of the Po under his crown was manifest, and the statesmen responsible for the re-establishment of European order were little likely to do violence to their legitimist principles in order to maintain on his throne a revolutionary sovereign who was proving himself so potent a centre of national unrest. At the very opening of the congress of Vienna Talleyrand, with astounding effrontery, affected not to know " the man " 1 He had contributed to the defeats of the viceroy Prince Eugene in January and February 1814, but did not show any eagerness to press his victories to the advantage of the Allies, contenting himself with occupying the principality of Benevento. MURAT 29 who had been casually referred to as " the king of Naples "; and he made it the prime object of his policy in the weeks that followed to secure the repudiation by the powers of Murat's title, and the restoration of the Bourbon king. The powers, indeed, were very ready to accept at least the principle of this policy. " Great Britain," wrote Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool on the 3rd of September from Geneva, " has no objection, but the reverse, to the restoration of the Bourbons in Naples."1 Prussia saw in Murat the protector of the malcontents in Italy.2 Alexander I. of Russia had no sympathy for any champion of Liberalism in Italy save himself. Austria confessed " sub sigillo " that she shared " His Most Christian Majesty's views as to the restoration of ancient dynasties."3 The main difficul- ties in the way were Austria's treaty obligations and the means by which the desired result was to be obtained. Talleyrand knew well that Austria, in the long run, would break faith with Murat and prefer a docile Bourbon on the throne of Naples to this incalculable child of the Revolution; but he had his private reasons for desiring to " score off " Metternich, the continuance of whose quasidiplomatic liaison with Caroline Murat he rightly suspected. He proposed boldly that, since Austria, in view of the treaty of Jan. n, 1814, was naturally reluctant to undertake the task, the restored Bourbon king of France should be empowered to restore the Bourbon king of Naples by French arms, thus reviving once more the ancient Habsburg-Bourbon rivalry for dominion in Italy.4 Metternich, with characteristic skill, took advantage of this situation at once to checkmate France and to disembarrass Austria of its obligations to Murat. While secretly assuring Louis XVTII., through his confidant Blacas, that Austria was in favour of a Bourbon restoration in Naples, he formally intimated to Talleyrand that a French invasion of Italian soil would mean war with Austria.6 To Murat, who had appealed to the treaty of 1814, and demanded a passage northward for the troops destined to oppose those of Louis XVIII., he explained that Austria, by her ultimatum to France, had already done all that was necessary, that any movement of the Neapolitan troops outside Naples would be a useless breach of the peace of Italy, and that it would be regarded as an attack on Austria and a rupture of the alliance. Murat's suspicions of Austrian sincerity were now confirmed;6 he realized that there was no question now of his obtaining any extension of territory at the expense of the states of the Church, and that in the Italy as reconstructed at Vienna his own position would be intolerable. Thus the very motives which had led him to betray Napoleon now led him to break with Austria. He would secure his throne by proclaiming the cause of united Italy, chasing the Austrians 1 P.O. Vienna Congress, vii. 2 Mem. of Hardenberg, F.O. Cong. Pruss. Arch. 20. Aug. 14- June 15. 3 Metternich to Bombelles. Jan. 13, 1815, enclosed in Castle- reagh to Liverpool of Jan. 25. F.O. Congr. Vienna, xi. 4 Sorel, viii. 41 1 seq. ' Cf. a " most secret " communication to be made to M. de Blacas (in Metternich to Bombelles, Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). Murat's aggressive attitude, and the unrest in Italy, are largely due to the threatening attitude of France. . . . H.I.M. is not prepared to risk a rising of Italy under " the national flag." How will France coerce Naples? By sending an army into Italy across our states, which would thus become infected with revolutionary views? The emperor could not allow such an expedition. When Italy is settled— and we will not allow Murat to keep the Marches . . . he will lose prestige, and then . . . will be the time for Austria to give effect to the views which, all the time, she shares with His Most Christian Majesty." (In Castlereagh to Liverpool, " private," Jan. 25, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.) * That they were fully justified is clear from the following ex- tract from a letter of Metternich to Bombelles at Paris (dated Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). " Whether Joachim or a Bourbon reigns at Naples is for us a very subordinate question. . . . When Europe is established on solid foundations the fate of Joachim will no longer be problematical, but do not let us risk destroying Austria and France and Europe, in order to solve this question at the worst moment it would be put on the tapis. . . . This is no business of the Congress, but let the Bourbon Powers declare that they maintain their claims." (In Castlereagh's private letter to Lord Liverpool, Jan. 15, 1815, F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.) from the peninsula, and establishing himself as a national king. To contemporary observers in the best position to judge the enterprise seemed by no means hopeless. Lord William Bentinck, the commander of the English forces in Italy, wrote to Castlereagh 7 that, " having seen more of Italy," he doubted whether the whole force of Austria would be able to expel Murat; " he has said clearly that he will raise the whole of Italy; and there is not a doubt that under the standard of Italian indepen- dence the whole of Italy will rally." This feeling, continued Bentinck, was due to the foolish and illiberal conduct of the restored sovereigns; the inhabitants of the states occupied by the Austrian troops were " discontented to a man "; even in Tus- cany " the same feeling and desire " universally prevailed. All the provinces, moreover, were full of unemployed officers and soldiers who, in spite of Murat's treason, would rally to his standard, especially as he would certainly first put himself into communication with Napoleon in Elba; while, so far as Bentinck could hear of the disposition of the French army, it would be " dangerous to assemble it anywhere or for any purpose." The urgency of the danger was, then, fully realized by the powers even before Napoleon's return from Elba; for they were well aware of Murat's correspondence with him. On the first news of Napoleon's landing in France, the British government wrote to Wellington8 that this event together with " the proofs of Murat's treachery " had removed " all remaining scruples " on their part, and that they were now " prepared to enter into a concert for his removal," adding that Murat should, in the event of his resigning peaceably, receive " a pension and all considera- tion." The rapid triumph of Napoleon, however, altered this tone. " Bonaparte's successes have altered the situation," wrote Castlereagh to Wellington on the 24th, adding that Great Britain would enter into a treaty with Murat, if he would give guarantees " by a certain redistribution of his forces " and the like, and that in spite of Napoleon's success he would be " true to Europe." In a private letter enclosed Castlereagh suggested that Murat might send an auxiliary force to France, where " his personal presence would be unseemly."9 Clearly, had King Joachim played his cards well he had the game in his hands. But it was not in his nature to play them well. He should have made the most of the chastened temper of the Allies, either to secure favourable terms from them, or to hold them in play until Napoleon was ready to take the field. But his head had been turned by the flatteries of the " patriots"; he believed that all Italy would rally to his cause, and that alone he would be able to drive the " Germans " over the Alps, and thus, as king of united Italy, be in a position to treat on equal terms with Napoleon, should he prove victorious; and he determined to strike without delay. On the 23rd the news reached Metternich at Vienna that the Neapolitan troops were on the march to the frontier. The Allies at once decided to commission Austria to deal with Murat; in the event of whose defeat, Ferdinand IV. was to be restored to Naples, on promising a general amnesty and giving guarantees for a " reasonable " system of government.10 Meanwhile, in Naples itself there were signs enough that Murat's popularity had disappeared. In Calabria the indiscrimi- nate severity of General Manhes in suppressing brigandage had made the government hated; in the capital the general dis- affection had led to rigorous policing, while conscripts had to be dragged in chains to join their regiments.11 In these circum- stances an outburst of national enthusiasm for King Joachim was hardly to be expected; and the campaign in effect proved a complete fiasco. Rome and Bologna were, indeed, occupied with- out serious opposition; but on the I2th of April Murat's forces received a check from the advancing Austrians at Ferrara and on the 2nd of May were completely routed at Tolentino. The 7 Letter dated Florence, Jan. 7, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi. 8 F.O. Vienna Congr. xii., Draft to Wellington dated March 12. 9 F.O. Vienna Congr. xii. 10 Ibid. Wellington to Castlereagh, Vienna, March 25. u F.O. Cong. xi. ; Munster to Castlereagh, Naples, Jan. 22. MURATORI Austrians advanced on Naples, when Ferdinand IV. was duly restored, while Queen Caroline and her children were deported to Trieste. Murat himself escaped to France, where his offer of service was contemptuously refused by Napoleon. He hid for a while near Toulon, with a price upon his head; then, after Waterloo, refusing an asylum in England, he set out for Corsica (August). Here he was joined by a few rash spirits who urged him to attempt to recover his kingdom. Though Metternich offered to allow him to join his wife at Trieste and to secure him a dignified position and a pension, he preferred to risk all on a final throw for power. On the 28th of September he sailed for Calabria with a flotilla of six vessels carrying some 250 armed men. Four of his ships were scattered by a storm; one deserted him at the last moment, and on the 8th of October he landed at Pizzo with only 30 companions. Of the popular enthusiasm for his cause which he had been led to expect there was less than no sign, and after a short and unequal contest he was taken prisoner by a captain named Trenta-Capilli, whose brother had been executed by General Manhes. He was im- prisoned in the fort of Pizzo, and on the isth of October 1815 was tried by court-martial, under a law of his own, for disturbing the public peace, and was sentenced to be shot in half an hour. After writing a touching letter of farewell to his wife and children, he bravely met his fate, and was buried at Pizzo. Though much good may be said of Murat as a king sincerely anxious for the welfare of his adopted country, his most abiding title to fame is that of the most dashing cavalry leader of the age. As a man he was rash, hot-tempered and impetuously brave; he was adored by his troopers who followed their idol, the " golden eagle," into the most terrible fire and against the most terrible odds. Napoleon lived to regret his refusal to accept his services during the Hundred Days, declaring that Murat's presence at Waterloo would have given more con- centrated power to the cavalry charges and might possibly have changed defeat into victory. By his wife Maria Annunciata Carolina Murat had two sons. The elder, NAPOLEON ACHII.LE MURAT (1801-1847), during his father's reign prince royal of the Two Sicilies, emigrated about 1821 to America, and settled near Tallahassee, Florida, where in 1826-1838 he was postmaster. In 1826 he married a great-niece of Washington. He published Lettres d'un citoyen des Etats-Unis A un de ses amis d Europe (Paris, 1830); Esquisse morale et politique des Etats-Unis (ibid. 1832); and Exposition des principes du gouiiernement ripublicain lei qu'il a ete perfectionni en Amerique (ibid. 1833). He died in Florida on the isth of April 1847- The second son, NAPOLEON LUCIEN CHARLES MURAT (1803- 1878), who was created prince of Ponte Corvo in 1813, lived with his mother in Austria after 1815, and in 1824 started to join his brother in America, but was shipwrecked on the coast of Spain and held for a while a prisoner. Arriving in 1823, two years later he married in Baltimore a rich American, Georgina Frazer (d.. 1879) ; but her fortune was lost, and for some years his wife supported herself and him by keeping a girls' school. After several abortive attempts to return to France, the revolution of 1848 at last gave him his opportunity. He was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly and of the Legislative Assembly (1849), was minister plenipotentiary at Turin from October 1849 to March 1850, and after the coup d'ttat of the 2nd of December 1851 was made a member of the consultative commission. On the proclamation of the Empire, he was recognized by Napoleon III. as a prince of the blood royal, with the title of Prince Murat, and, in addition to the payment of 2,000,000 fr. of debts, was given a^ income of 150,000 fr. As a member of the Senate he distinguished himself in 1861 by supporting the temporal power of the pope, but otherwise he played no conspicuous part. The fall of the Empire in Sep- tember 1870 involved his retirement into private life. He died on the loth of April 1878, leaving three sons and two daughters, (i) Joachim, Prince Murat (1834-1901), in 1854 married Maley Berthier, daughter of the Prince de Wagram, who bore him a son, Joachim (b. 1856), who succeeded him as head of the family, and two daughters, of whom the younger, Anna (b. 1863), became the wife of the Austrian minister Count Goluchowski. (2) Achille (1847-1895), married Princess Dadian of Mingrelia. (3) Louis (b. 1851), married in 1873 to the widowed Princess Eudoxia Orbeliani (nee Somov), was for a time orderly officer to Charles XV.' of Sweden. (4) Caroline (b. 1832), married in 1850 Baron Charles de Chassiron and in 1872 Mr John Garden (d. 1885). (5) Anna (b. 1841), married in 1865 Antoine de Noailles, due de Mouchy. AUTHORITIES.— See A. Sorel, L'Europe el la r&vclution franfaise (8 yols., 1885-1892) passim, but especially vol. viii. for Murat's policy after the 1812; Helfert, Joachim Murat, seine letzten Kampfe und sein Ende (Vienna, 1878); G. Romano, Ricordi muratiani (Pavia, 1890); Correspondence de Joachim Murat, Juillet 1791- Juillet 1808, ed A. Lumbroso (Milan, 1899); Count Murat, Murat, lieutenant de I'empereur en Espagne (Paris, 1897); Guardione, Cioacchino Murat in Italia (Palermo, 1899); M. H. Weil, Prince Eugene et Murat (5 vols., Paris, 1901-1904) ; Chavenon and Saint- Yves, Joachim Murat (Paris, 1905); Lumbroso, L'Agonia di un regnp; Cioacchino Murat al Pizzo (Milan, 1904). See also the bibliography to NAPOLEON I. (W. A. P.) MURATORI, LUDOVICO ANTONIO (1672-1750), Italian scholar, historian and antiquary, was born of poor parents at Vignola in the duchy of Modena on the 2ist of October 1672. While young he attracted the attention of Father Bacchini, the librarian of the duke of Modena, by whom his literary tastes were turned toward historical and antiquarian research. Having taken minor orders in 1688, Muratori proceeded to his degree of doctor inutroquejurebelore 1694, was ordained priest in 1695 and appointed by Count Carlo Borromeo one of the doctors of the Ambrosian library at Milan. From manuscripts now placed under his charge he made a selection of materials for several volumes (Anecdota), which he published with notes. The reputation he acquired was such that the duke of Modena offered him the situation of keeper of the public archives of the duchy. Muratori hesitated, until the offer of the additional post of librarian, on the resignation of Father Bacchini, deter- mined him in 1700 to return to Modena. The preparation of numerous valuable tracts on the history of Italy during the middle ages, and of dissertations and discussions on obscure points of historical and antiquarian interest, as well as the publication of his various philosophical, theological, legal, poetical and other works absorbed the greater part of his time. These brought him into communication with the most distinguished scholars of Italy, France and Germany. But they also exposed him in his later years to envy. His enemies spread abroad the rumour that the pope, Benedict XIV., had discovered in his writings passages savouring of heresy, even of atheism. Muratori appealed to the pope, repudiating the accusation. His Holiness assured him of his protection, and, without expressing his approbation of the opinions in question of the learned antiquary, freed him from the imputations of his enemies. Muratori died on the 23rd of January 1750, and was buried with much pomp in the church of Santa Maria di Pomposa, in connexion with which he had laboured as parish priest for many years. His remains were removed in 1774 to the church of St Augustin. Muratori is rightly regarded as the " father of Italian history." This is due to his great collection, Rerum italicarum scriptores, to which he devoted about fifteen years' work (1723-1738). The gathering together and editing some 25 huge folio volumes of texts was followed by a series of 75 dissertations on medieval Italy (Antiquitates italicae medii aevi, 1738-1742, 6 vols. folio). To these he added a Novtts thesaurus inscriptionum (4 vols. , 1 739-1 743) , which was of great importance in the develop- ment of epigraphy. Then, anticipating the action of the learned societies of the igth century, he set about a popular treatment of the historical sources he had published. These Annali d' Italia (1744-1749) reached 12 volumes, but were imperfect and are of little value. In addition to this national enterprise (the Scriptores were published by the aid of the Societa palatina of Milan) Muratori published Anecdota ex ambrosianae biblio- thecaecodd. (2 vols. 4to, Milan, 1697, 1698; Padua, 1713); Anecdota graeca (3 vols. 4to, Padua, 1709); Antichita Estens MURAVIEV— MURCHISON (2 vols. fol., Modena, 1717); Vita e rime di F. Petrarca (1711), and Vita ed cpere di L. Castehetro (1727). In biblical scholarship Muratori is chiefly known as the dis- coverer of the so-called Muratorian Canon, the name given to a fragment (85 lines) of early Christian literature, which he found in 1740, embedded in an 8th-century codex which forms a compendium of theological tracts followed by the five early Christian creeds. The document contains a list of the books of the New Testament, a similar list concerning the Old Testament having apparently preceded it. It is in barbarous Latin which has probably been translated from original Greek — the language prevailing in Christian Rome until c. 200. There is little doubt that it was composed in Rome and we may date it about the year 190. Lightfoot inclined to Hippolytus as its author. It is the earliest document known which enumerates the books in order. The first line of the fragment is broken and speaks of the Gospel of St Mark, but there is no doubt that its compiler knew also of St Matthew. Acts is ascribed to St Luke. He names thirteen letters of St Paul but says nothing of the Epistle to the Hebrews. The alleged letters of Paul to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians he rejects, " for gall must not be mixed with honey." The two Epistles of Peter and the Epistle of James are not referred to, but that of Jude and two of John are accepted. He includes the Apocalypse of John and also the Apocalypse of Peter. The Shtpherd of Hermas he rejects as not of apostolic origin, but this test of canonicity is not consistently applied for he allows the " Wisdom written by the friends of Solomon in his honour." He rejects the writings of the Gnostics Valentinus and Basilides, and of Montanus. The list is not an authoritative decree, but a private register of what the author considers the prevailing Christian sentiment in his neighbourhood. He notes certain differences among the Gospels, because not all the evangelists were eye-witnesses of the life of Jesus; yet Mark and Luke respectively have behind them the authority of Peter and of Paul, who is thus regarded as on a footing with the Twelve. The Fourth Gospel was written by John at the request of the other apostles and the bishops on the basis of a revelation made to Andrew. The letters of Paul are written to four individuals and to seven different churches, like the seven letters in the Apocalypse of John. It is interesting to notice the coincidence of his list with the evidence gained from Tertullian for Africa and from Irenaeus for Gaul and indirectly for Asia Minor. Before the year 200 there was widespread agreement in the sacred body of apostolic writings read in Christian churches on the Lord's Day along with the Old Testament. Muratori's Letters, with a Life prefixed, were published by Lazzari, (2 vols., Venice, 1783). His nephew, F. G. Muratori, also wrote a Vita del celebre Ludov. Ant. Muratori (Venice, 1756). See also A. G. Spinelli " BibliographiadellelettereestampadiL. A. Muratori " in Bolletino dell' institute storico italiano (1888), and Carducci's preface to the new Scriptores. The Muratorian Canon is given in full with a translation in H. M. Gwatkin's Selections from Early Christian Writers. It is also published as No. I of H. Lietzmann's Kleine Tcxte fur theologische Vorlesungen (Bonn, 1902). See also Journal of Theological Studies, viii. 537. MURAVIEV, MICHAEL NIKOLAIEVICH, COUNT (1845-19(50), Russian statesman, was born on the igth of April 1845. He was the son of General Count Nicholas Muraviev (governor of Grodno), and grandson of the Count Michael Muraviev, who became notorious for his drastic measures in stamping out the Polish insurrection of 1863 in the Lithuanian provinces. He was educated at a secondary school at Poltava, and was for a short time at Heidelberg University. In 1864 he entered the chancel- lery of the minister for foreign affairs at St Petersburg, and was soon afterwards attached to the Russian legation at Stuttgart, where he attracted the notice of Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. He was transferred to Berlin, then to Stockholm, and back again to Berlin. In 1877 he was second secretary at the Hague. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he was a delegate of the Red Cross Society in charge of an ambulance train provided i by Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. After the war he was succes- sively first secretary at Paris, chancellor of the embassy at Berlin, and then minister at Copenhagen. In Denmark he was brought much into contact with the imperial family, and on the death of Prince Lobanov in 1897 he was appointed by the Tsar Nicholas II. to be his minister of foreign affairs. The next three and a half years were a critical time for European diplomacy. The Chinese and Cretan questions were disturbing factors. As regards Crete, Count Muraviev's policy was vacillating; in China his hands were forced by Germany's action at Kiaochow. But he acted with singular Itgerete with regard at all events to his assurances to Great Britain respecting the leases of Port Arthur and Talienwan from China; he told the British ambassador that these would be " open ports," and afterwards essentially modified this pledge. When the Tsar Nicholas inaugurated the Peace Con- ference at the Hague, Count Muraviev extricated his country from a situation of some embarrassment; but when, subsequently, Russian ' agents in Manchuria and at Peking connived at the agitation which culminated in the Boxer rising of 1900, the relations of the responsible foreign minister with the tsar became strained. Muraviev died suddenly on the 2ist of June 1900, of apoplexy, brought on, it was said, by a stormy interview with the tsar. MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK IMPEY (1792-1871), British geologist, was born at Tarradale, in eastern Ross, Scotland, on the igth of February 1792. His father, Kenneth Murchison (d. 1796), came of an old Highland clan in west Ross-shire, and having been educated as a medical man, acquired a fortune in India; while stilt in the prime of life he returned to Scotland, where, marrying one of the Mackenzies of Fairburn, he purchased the estate of Tarradale and settled for a few years as a resident Highland landlord. Young Murchison left the Highlands when three years old, and at the age of seven was sent to the grammar school of Durham, where he remained for six years. He was then placed at the military college, Great Marlow, to be trained for the army. With some difficulty he passed the examinations, and at the age of fifteen was gazetted ensign in the 36th regiment. A year later (1808) he landed with Wellesley in Galicia, and was present at the actions of Rorica and Vimiera. Subsequently under Sir John Moore he took part in the retreat to Corunna and the final battle there. This was his only active service. The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo seeming to close the prospect of advancement in the military profession, Murchison, after eight years of service, quitted the army, and married the daughter of General Hugonin, of Nursted House, Hampshire. With her he then spent rather more than two years on the Continent, particularly in Italy, where her cultivated tastes were of signal influence in guiding his pursuits. He threw himself with all the enthusiasm of his character into the study of art and antiquities, and for the first time in his life tasted the pleasures of truly intellectual pursuits. Returning to England in 1818, he sold his paternal property in Ross-shire and settled in England, where he took to field sports. He soon became one of the greatest fox-hunters in the midland counties; but at last, getting weary of such pursuits and meeting Sir Humphry Davy, who urged him to turn his energy to science, he was induced to attend lectures at the Royal Institution. This change in the current of his occupations was much helped by the sympathy of his wife, who, besides her artistic acquirements, took much interest in natural history. Eager and enthusiastic in whatever he undertook, he was fasci- nated by the young science of geology. He joined the Geological Society of London and soon showed himself one of its most active members, having as his colleagues there such men as Sedgwick, W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland, W. H. Fitton and Lyell. Exploring with his wife the geology of the south of England, he devoted special attention to the rocks of the north- west of Sussex and the adjoining parts of Hants and Surrey, on which, aided by Fitton, he wrote his first scientific paper, read to the society in 1825. Though he had reached the age of thirty- two before he took any interest in science, he developed his taste and increased his knowledge so rapidly that in the first MURCIA three years of his scientific career he had explored large parts of England and Scotland, had obtained materials for three important memoirs, as well as for two more written in conjunction with Sedgwick, and had risen to be a prominent member of the Geological Society and one of its two secretaries. Turning his attention for a little to Continental geology, he explored with Lyell the volcanic region of Auvergne, parts of southern France, northern Italy, Tirol and Switzerland. A little later, with Sedgwick as his companion, he attacked the difficult problem of the geological structure of the Alps, and their joint paper giving the results of their study will always be regarded as one of the classics in the literature of Alpine geology. It was in the year 1831 that Murchison found the field in which the chief work of his life was to be accomplished. Acting on a suggestion made to him by Buckland he betook himself to the borders of Wales, with the view of endeavouring to discover whether the greywacke rocks underlying the Old Red Sandstone could be grouped into a definite order of succession, as the Secondary rocks of England had been made to tell their story by William Smith. For several years he continued to work vigor- ously in that region. The result was the establishment of the Silurian system— under which were grouped for the first time a remarkable series of formations, each replete with distinctive organic remains ol ' ;r than and very different from those of the other rocks of England. These researches, together with descriptions of the coal-fields and overlying formations in south Wales and the English border counties, were embodied in The Silurian System (London, 1839), a massive quarto in two parts, admirably illustrated with map, sections, pictorial views and plates of fossils. The full import of his discoveries was not at first perceived; but as years passed on the types of exigence brought to light by him from the rocks of the border counties of England and Wales were ascertained to belong to a geological period of which there are recognizable traces in almost all parts of the globe. Thus the term " Silurian," derived from the name of the old British tribe Silures, soon passed into the vocabulary of geologists in every country. The establishment of the Silurian system was followed by that of the Devonian system, an investigation in which, aided by the palaeontological assistance of W. Lonsdale, Sedgwick and Murchison were fellow-labourers, both in the south-west of England and in the Rhineland. Soon afterwards Murchison projected an important geological campaign in Russia with the view of extending to that part of the Continent the classification he had succeeded in elaborating for the older rocks of western Europe. He was accompanied by P. E. P. de Verneuil (1805- 1873) and Count A. F. M. L. A. von Keyserling (1815-1891), in conjunction with whom he produced a magnificent work on Russia and the Ural Mountains. The publication of this mono- graph in 1845 completes the first and most active half of Murchi- son's scientific career. In 1846 he was knighted, and in the same year he presided over the meeting of the British Association at Southampton. During the later years of his life a large part of his time was devoted to the affairs of the Royal Geographical Society, of which he was in 1830 one of the founders, and he was president 1843-1845, 1851-1853, 1856-1859 and 1862-1871. So constant and active were his exertions on behalf of geographical exploration that to a large section of the contemporary public he was known rather as a geographer than a geologist. He particu- larly identified himself with the fortunes of David Livingstone in Africa, and did much to raise and keep alive the sympathy of his fellow-countrymen in the fate of that great explorer. The chief geological investigation of the last decade of his life was devoted to the Highlands of Scotland, where he believed he had succeeded in showing that the vast masses of crystalline schists, previously supposed to be part of what used to be termed the Primitive formations, were really not older than the Silurian period, for that underneath them lay beds of limestone and quartzite containing Lower Silurian (Cambrian) fossils. Subse- quent research, however, has shown that this infraposition of the fossiliferous rocks is not their original place, but has been brought about by a gigantic system of dislocations, whereby successive masses of the oldest gneisses have been torn up from below and thrust bodily over the younger formations. In 1855 Murchison was appointed director-general of the geological survey and director of the Royal School of Mines and the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, London, in succession to Sir Henry De la Beche, who had been the first to hold these offices. Official routine now occupied much of his time, but he found opportunity for the Highland researches just alluded to, and also for preparing successive editions of his work Siluria (1854, ed. 5, 1872), which was meant to present the main features of the original Silurian System together with a digest of subsequent discoveries, particularly of those which showed the extension of the Silurian classification into other countries. His official position gave him further opportunity for the exercise of those social functions for which he had always been distinguished, and which a considerable fortune inherited from near relatives on his mother's side enabled him to display on a greater scale. His house in Belgrave Square was one of the great centres where science, art, literature, politics and social eminence were brought together in friendly intercourse. In 1863 he was made a K.C. B., and three years later was raised to the dignity of a baronet. The learned societies of his own country bestowed their highest rewards upon him: the Royal Society gave him the Copley medal, the Geological Society its Wollaston medal, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh its Brisbane medal. There was hardly a foreign scientific society of note which had not his name enrolled among its honorary members. The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the prix Cuvier, and elected him one of its eight foreign members in succession to Faraday. One of the closing public acts of Murchison's life was the founding of a chair of geology and mineralogy in the university of Edinburgh, for which he gave the sum of £6000, an annual sum of £200 being likewise provided by a vote in parliament for the endowment of the professorship. While the negotiations with the Government in regard to this subject were still in progress, Murchison was seized with a paralytic affection on 2ist of November 1870. He rallied and was able to take interest in current affairs until the early autumn of the follow- ing year. After a brief attack of bronchitis he died on the 22nd of October 1871. Under his will there was established the Murchison Medal and geological fund to be awarded annually by the council of the Geological Society in London. See the Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, by Sir A. Geikie (2 vols., 1875)- (A. GE.) MURCIA, a maritime province of south-eastern Spain, bounded on the E. by Alicante, S.E. and S. by the Mediterranean Sea, W. by Almerfa and Granada and N. by Albacete. Pop. (1900), 577,987; area, 4453 sq. m. The extent of coast is about 75 m.; from Cape Palos westwards to Villaricos Point (where Almeria begins) it is fringed by hills reaching their greatest elevation immediately east of Cartagena; northwards from Cape Palos to the Alicante boundary a low sandy tongue encloses the shallow lagoon called Mar Menor. Eastward from the Mar Menor and northward from Cartagena stretches the plain known as El Campo de Cartagena, but the surface of the rest of the province is diversified by ranges of hills, belonging to the same system as the Sierra Nevada, which connect the mountains of Almeria and Granada with those of Alicante. The general direction of these ranges is from south-west to north-east; they reach their highest point (5150 ft.) on the Sierra de Espufia, between the Mula and Sangonera valleys. They are rich in iron, copper, argentiferous lead, alum, sulphur, and saltpetre. Mineral springs occur at Mula, Archena (hot sulphur), and Alhama (hot chalybeate). The greater part of the province drains into the Mediterranean, chiefly by the Segura, which enters it in the north-west below Hellin in Albacete, and leaves it a little above Orihuela ip Alicante; within the province it receives on the left the Arroyo del Jua, and on the right the Caravaca, Quipar, Mula, and Sangonera. The smaller streams of Nogalte and Albujon fall directly into the Mediterranean and the Mar Menor respectively. The climate is hot and dry, and MURCIA— MURDOCK 33 agriculture is largely dependent on irrigation, which, where practicable, has been carried on since the time of the Moors. Wheat, barley, maize, hemp, oil, and wine (the latter somewhat rough in quality) are produced; fruit, especially the orange, is abundant along the course of the Segura; mulberries for seri- culture are extensively grown around the capital; and the number of bees kept is exceptionally large. Esparto grass is gathered on the sandy tracts. The live stock consists chiefly of asses, mules, goats and pigs; horses, cattle and sheep being relatively few. Apart from agriculture, the principal industry is mining, which has its centre near Cartagena. Large quantities' of lead and esparto, as well as of zinc, iron and copper ores, and sulphur, are exported. The province is traversed by a railway which connects Murcia with Albacete and Valencia; from Alcantarilla there is a branch to Lorca and Baza. Near the capital and other large towns there are good roads, but the means of communication are defective in the remoter districts. This deficiency has somewhat retarded the development of mining, and, although it has been partly overcome by the construction of light railways, many rich deposits of ore remain unworked. The chief towns are Murcia, the capital, Cartagena, Lorca, La Uni6n, Mazarron, Yecla, Jumilla, Aguilas, Caravaca, Totana, Cieza, Mula, Moratalla, and Cehegin. Other towns with more than 7000 inhabitants are Alhama, Bulias. Fuente Alamo, Molina and Torre Pacheco. The province of Murcia was the first Spanish possession of the Carthaginians, by whom Nova Carthago was founded. The Romans included it in Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the Moors the province was known as Todmir, which included, according to Edrisi, the cities Murcia, Orihuela, Cartagena, Lorca, Mula and Chinchilla. The kingdom of Murcia, which came into independent existence after the fall of Omayyads (see CALIPHATE) included the present Albacete as well as Murcia. It became subject to the crown of Castile in the I3th century. Until 1833 the province of Murcia also included Albacete. MURCIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Murcia; on the river Segura, 25 m. W. of the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900), 111,539. Murcia is connected by rail with all parts of Spain, and is an important industrial centre, sixth in respect of population among the cities of the kingdom. It has been an episcopal see since 1291. It is built nearly in the centre of a low-lying fertile plain, known as the huerta or garden of Murcia, which includes the valleys of the Segura and its right-hand tribu- tary the Sangonera, and is surrounded by mountains. Despite the proximity of the sea, the climate is subject to great varia- tions, the summer heat being severe, while frosts are common in winter. The city is built mainly on the left bank of the Segura, which curves north-eastward after receiving the Sangonera below Murcia, and falls into the Mediterranean about 30 m. N.E. A fine stone bridge of two arches gives access to the suburb of San Benito, which contains the bull-ring. As a rule the streets are broad, straight and planted with avenues of trees, but the Calle de Plateria and Calle de la Traperia, which contain many of the principal shops, are more characteristically Spanish, being lined with old-fashioned balconied houses, and so narrow that wheeled traffic is in most parts impossible. In summer these thoroughfares are shaded by awnings. The Malecon, or embank- ment, is a fine promenade skirting the left bank of the Segura; the river is here crossed by a weir and supplies power to several silk-mills. The principal square is the Arenal or Plaza de la Constituci6n, planted with orange trees and adjoining the Glorieta Park. The cathedral, dating from 1388-1467, is the work of many architects; in the main it is late Gothic, but a Renaissance dome and a tower 480 ft. high were added in 1521, while a Corinthian facade was erected in the i8th century. There are some good paintings and fine wood-carving in the interior. Other noteworthy buildings are the colleges of San Fulgencio and San Isidro, the bishops' palace, the hospital of San Juan de Dios, the Moorish Alhondiga, or grain warehouse, the buildings of the municipal and provincial councils and the Contraste, which is adorned with sculptured coats-of-arms, and was originally designed to contain standard weights and XIX. 2 measures; it has become a picture-gallery. There are two training schools for teachers, a provincial institute and a museum. Since 1875 the industrial importance of Murcia has steadily increased. Mulberries (for silkworms), oranges and other fruits are largely cultivated in the huerta, and the silk industry, which dates from the period of Moorish rule, is still carried on. Manu- factures of woollen, linen and cotton goods, of saltpetre, flour, leather and hats, have been established in more modern times, and Murcia is the chief market for the agricultural produce of a large district. A numerous colony of gipsies has settled in the west of the city. Murcia was an Iberian town before the Punic Wars, but its name then, and under Roman cule, is not known, though some have tried to identify it with the Roman Vergilia. To the Moors, who took possession early in the 8th century, it was known as Medinat Mursiya. Edrisi described it in the i2th century as populous and strongly fortified. After the fall of the caliphate of Cordova it passed successively under the rule of Almeria, Toledo and Seville. In 1172 it was taken by the Almohades, and from 1223 to 1243 it became the capital of an independent kingdom. The Castilians took it at the end of this period, when large numbers of immigrants from north-eastern Spain and Provence settled in the town; French and Catalan names are still not uncommon. Moorish princes continued to rule in name over this mixed population, but in 1269 a rising against the suzerain, Alphonso the Wise, led to the final incorporation of Murcia (which then included the present province of Albacete) into the kingdom of Castile. During the War of the Spanish Succession Bishop Luis de Belluga defended the city against the archducal army by flooding the huerta. In 1810 and 1812 it was attacked by the French under Marshal Soult. It suffered much from floods in 1651, 1879 and 1907, though the construc- tion of the Malecon has done much to keep the Segura within its own channel. In 1829 many buildings, including the cathedral, were damaged by an earthquake. MURDER, in law, the unlawful killing of a person with malice aforethought (see HOMICIDE). The O. Eng. morSor comes ulti- mately from the Indo-European root mar-, to die, which has also given Lat. mars, death, and all its derivatives in English, French and other Rom. languages; cf. Gr. |3por6$, for noprbs, mortal. The O. Eng. form, Latinized as murdrum, murtrum, whence Fr. meurtre, is represented in other Teutonic languages by a cognate form, e.g. Ger. Mord, Du. moord. MURDOCK, WILLIAM (1754-1839), British inventor, was born near the village of Auchinleck in Ayrshire on the 2 rst of August 1754. His father, John Murdoch (as the name is spelt in Scotland), was a millwright and miller, and William was brought up in the same occupation. In 1777 he entered the employment of Boulton & Watt in the Soho works at Birming- ham, and about two years afterwards he was sent to Cornwall to superintend the fitting of Watt's engines. It is said that while staying at Redruth he carried a series of experiments in the distillation of coal so far that in 1792 he was able to light his cottage and offices with gas, but the evidence is not conclusive. However, after his return to Birmingham about 1799, he made such progress in the discovery of practical methods for making, storing and purifying gas that in 1802 a portion of the exterior of the Soho factory was lighted with it in celebration of the peace of Amiens, and in the following year it -was brought into use for the interior. Murdock was also the inventor of important improvements in the steam-engine. He was the first to devise an oscillating engine, of which he made a model about 1784; in 1786 he was busy — somewhat to the annoyance of both Boulton and Watt — with a steam carriage or road locomotive; and in 1799 he invented the long D slide valve. He is also believed to have been the real deviser of the sun and planet motion patented by Watt in 1781. In addition his ingenuity was directed to the utilization of compressed air, and in 1803 he constructed a steam gun. He retired from business in 1830, and died at Soho on the isth of November 1839. At the celebration of the centenary of gas lighting in 1892, a bust of Murdock was unveiled by Lord Kelvin in the Wallace Monument. 34 MURE— MURGER Stirling, and there is also a bust of him by Sir F. L. Chantrey at Handsworth Church, where he was buried. His " Account of the Application of Gas from Coal to Economical Purposes " appeared in the Phil. Trans, for 1808. MURE, SIR WILLIAM (1594-1657), Scottish writer, son of Sir William Mure of Rowallan, was born in 1594. His mother was Elizabeth, sister of the poet Alexander Montgomerie (q.v.). He was a member of the Scottish parliament in 1643, and took part in the English campaign of 1644. He was wounded at Marston Moor, but a month later was commanding a regiment at Newcastle. He died in 1657. He wrote Dido and Aeneas; a translation (1628) of Boyd of Trochrig's Latin Hecatombe Christiana; The True Crucifixe for True Catholikes (1629); a paraphrase of the Psalms; the Historic and Descent of the House of Rowallane; A Counter-buff to Lysimachus Nicanor; TheCry of Blood and of a Broken Covenant (1650); besides much miscellaneous verse and many sonnets. A complete edition of his works was edited by William Tough for the Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1898). Mure's Lute-Book, a musical document of considerable interest, is preserved in the Laing collection of MSS. in the library of the university of Edinburgh. MURE, WILLIAM (1799-1860), Scottish classical scholar, was born at Caldwell, Ayrshire, on the 9th of July 1799. He was educated at Westminster School and the universities of Edinburgh and Bcnn. From 1846 to 1855 he represented the county of Renfrew in parliament in the Conservative interest, and was lord rector of Glasgow University in 1847-1848. For many years he devoted his leisure to Greek 'studies, and in 1850-1857 he published five volumes of a Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, which, though uncompleted and somewhat antiquated, is still useful. He died in London on the ist of April 1860. MURENA, the name of a Roman plebeian family from Lanuvium, belonging to the Licinian gens, said to be derived from the fondness of one of the family for lampreys (murenae) . The principal members of the family were Lucius Licinius Murena, who was defeated by Mithradates in Asia in 81 B.C., and his son Lucius Licinius Murena, who was defended by Cicero in 62 B.C. against a charge of bribery (Cic. Pro Murena). The son was for several years legate of Lucius Licinius Lucullus in the third Mithradatic War. In 65 he was praetor and made himself popular by the magnificence of the games provided by him. As administrator of Transalpine Gaul after his praetorship he gained the goodwill of both provincials and Romans by his impartiality. In 62 he was elected consul, but before entering upon office he was accused of bribery by Servius Sulpicius,an unsuccessful competitor, supported by Marcus Porcius Cato the younger and Servius Sulpicius Rufus, a famous jurist and son of the accuser. Murena was defended by Marcus Licinius Crassus (afterwards triumvir), Quintus Hortensius and Cicero, and acquitted, although it seems probable that he was guilty. During his consulship he passed a law {lex Junta Licinia) which enforced more strictly the provision of the lex Caecilia Didia — that laws sjjould be promulgated three nundinae before they were proposed to the comitia, and further enacted that, in order to prevent forgery, a copy of every proposed statute should be deposited before witnesses in the aerarium. MURETUS, the Latinized name of MARC ANTOINE MURET (1526-1585), French humanist, who was born at Muret near Limoges on the i2th of April 1526. At the age of eighteen he attracted the notice of the elder Scaliger, and was invited to lecture in the archiepiscopal college at Auch. He afterwards taught Latin at Villeneuve, and then at Bordeaux. Some time before 1552 he delivered a course of lectures in the college of Cardinal Lemoine at Paris, which was largely attended, Henry II. and his queen being among his hearers. His success made him many enemies, and he was thrown into prison on a disgraceful charge, but released by the intervention of powerful friends. The same accusation was brought against him at Toulouse, and he only saved his life by timely flight. The records of the town show that he was burned in effigy as a Huguenot and as shame- fully immoral (1554). After a wandering and insecure life of some years in Italy, he received and accepted the invitation of the Cardinal Ippolyte d'Este to settle in Rome in 1559. In 1561 he revisited France as a member of the cardinal's suite at the conference between Roman Catholics and Protestants held at Poissy. He returned to Rome in 1563. His lectures gained him a European reputation, and in 15 78 he received a tempting offer from the king of Poland to become teacher of jurisprudence in his new college at Cracow. Muretus, however, who about 1576 had taken holy orders, was induced by the liberality of Gregory XIII. to remain in Rome, where he died on the 4th of June 1585. Complete editions of his works: editio princeps, Verona (1727- 1730); by D. Ruhnken (1789), by C. H. Frotscher (1834-1841); two volumes of Scripta selecta, by J. Frey (1871); Variae lectiones, by F. A. Wolf and J. H. Fasi (1791-1828). Muretus edited a number of classical authors with learned and scholarly notes. His other works include Juvenilia et poemata varia, orationes and epistolae. See monograph by C. Dejob (Paris, 1881); J. E. Sandys, HisU Class. Schol., (2nd ed., 1908), ii. 148-152. MUREXIDE (NH^Cs^NsOe.HzO), the ammonium salt of purpuric acid. It may be prepared by heating alloxantin in ammonia gas to 100° C., or by boiling uramil with mercuric oxide (J. v. Liebig, F. Wohler, Ann., 1838, 26, 319), 2C4H6N3O3+O = NH4-C8H4N6O6+H2O. W. N. Hartley (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, 1791) found considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens of murexide sufficiently pure to give concordant results when examined by means of their absorption spectra, and conse- quently devised a new method of preparation for murexide. In this process alloxantin is dissolved in a large excess of boiling absolute alcohol, and dry ammonia gas is passed into the solution for about three hours. The solution is then filtered from the precipitated murexide, which is washed with absolute alcohol and dried. The salt obtained in this way is in the anhydrous state. It may also be prepared by digesting alloxan with alcoholic ammonia at about 78° C.; the purple solid so formed is easily soluble in water, and the solution produced is indistinguishable from one of murexide. On the constitution of murexide see also O. Piloty (Ann., 1904, 333. 3°); R. Mohlau (Ber., 1904, 37, 2686); and M. Slimmer and J. Stieglitz (Amer. Chem. Jour., 1904, 31, 661). MURFREESBORO, a city and the county-seat of Rutherford county, Tennessee, U.S.A., near the Stone River, 32 m. S.E. of Nashville. Pop. (1890), 3739; (1900), 3999 (2248 negroes); (1910), 4679. It is served by the Nashville Chattanooga & St Louis railway. It is in an agricultural region where cotton is an important crop, and has a considerable trade in red cedar, hardwood, cotton, livestock and grain; it has also various manufactures. At Murfreesboro are Soule College for girls (Methodist Episcopal South; 1852), Tennessee College for girls (Baptist, 1906), Mooney School for boys (1901), and Bradley Academy for negroes. Murfreesboro was settled in 1811; was incorporated in 1817, and from 1819 to 1825 was the capital of the state. It was named in honour of Colonel Hardy Murfree (1752-1809), a native of North Carolina, who served as an officer of North Carolina troops in the War of Independence, and after 1807 lived in Tennessee. About 2 m. west of the city the battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River (q.v.), was fought on the 3ist of December 1862 and the 2nd of January 1863. MURGER, HENRY (1822-1861), French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 24th of March 1822. His father was a German concierge and a tailor. At the age of fifteen Murger was sent into a lawyer's office, but the occupation was uncongenial and his father's trade still more so; and he became secretary to Count Alexei Tolstoi. He published in 1843 a poem entitled Via dolorosa, but it made no mark. He also tried journalism, and the paper Le Castor, which figures in his Vie de Bohdme as having combined devotion to the interests of the hat trade with recondite philosophy and elegant literature, is said to have existed, though shortlived. In 1848 appeared the collected sketches called Scenes de la vie de BohZme.- This book describes the fortunes and misfortunes, the loves, studies, amusements and sufferings of a group of impecunious students, artists and MURGHAB— MURILLO 35 men of letters, of whom Rodolphe represents Murger himself, while the others have been more or less positively identified. Murger, in fact, belonged to a clique of so-called Bohemians, the most remarkable of whom, besides himself, were Privat d'Angle- mont and Champfleury. La Vie de Boheme, arranged for the stage in collaboration with Theodore Barriere, was produced at the Varietes on the 22nd of November 1849, and was a triumphant success; it afterwards formed the basis of Puccini's opera, La Boheme (1898). From this time it was easy for Murger to live by journalism and general literature. He was introduced in 1851 to the Revue des deux mondes. But he was a slow, fastidious and capricious worker, and his years of hardship and dissipation had impaired his health. He published among other works Claude et Marianne in 1851 ; a comedy, Le Bonhomme Jadis in 1852; Le Pays Latin in 1852; Adeline Prolat (one of the most graceful and innocent if not the most original of his tales) in 1853; and Les Buveurs d'eau in 1855. This last, the most powerful of his books next to the Vie de Boheme, traces the fate of certain artists and students who, exaggerating their own powers and disdaining merely profitable work, come to an evil end not less rapidly than by dissipation. Some years before his death, which took place in a maison de sanle near Paris on the 28th of January 1861, Murger went to live at Marlotte, near Fontainebleau, and there he wrote an unequal book entitled Le Sabot rouge (1860), in which the character of the French peasant is uncomplimentarily treated. See an article by A. de Pontmartin in the Revue des deux mondes {October 1861). MURGHAB, a river of Afghanistan, which flows into Russian territory. It rises in the Firozkhoi highlands, the northern scarp of which is defined by the Band-i-Turkestan, and after traversing that plateau from east to west it turns north through deep defiles to Bala Murghab. Beyond this, in the neighbour- hood of Maruchak, it forms for a space the boundary-line between Afghan and Russian Turkestan; then joining the Kushk river at Pul-i-Khishti (Tash Kupri) it runs north to Merv, losing itself in the sands of the Merv desert after a course of about 450 m., its exact source being unknown. In the neighbourhood of Bala Murghab it is 50 yds. broad and some 3 ft. deep, with a rapid current. In the lower part of its course it is flanked by a remarkable network of canals. The ancient city of Merv, which was on its banks, was the great centre of medieval Arab trade, and Buddhist caves are found in the scarped cliffs of its right bank near Panjdeh. MURI, a province of the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between 9° and 11° 40' E. and 7° 10' and 9° 40' N. The river Benue divides it through its length, and the portion on the southern bank of the river is watered by streams flowing from the Cameroon region to the Benue. The province is bordered S. by Southern Nigeria, S.E. by German territory (Cameroon), E. by the province of Yola, N. by Bauchi, W. by Nassarawa and Bassa. The district of Katsena- Allah extends south of the Benue . considerably west of 9° E., the approximate limit of the remainder of the province. Muri has an area of 25,800 sq. m. and an estimated population of about 828,000. The province is rich in forest products and the Niger Company maintains trading stations on the river. Cotton is grown, and spinning thread, weaving and dyeing afford occupation to many thousands. The valley of the Benue has a climate generally unhealthy to Europeans, but there are places in the northern part of the province, such as the Fula settlement of Wase on a southern spur of the Murchison hills, where the higher altitude gives an excellent •climate. Muri includes the ancient Jukon empire together with various small Fula states and a number of pagan tribes, among whom the Munshi, who extend into the provinces of Nassarawa and Bassa, are among the most turbulent. The Munshi occupy about 4000 sq. m. in the Katsena-Allah district. The pagan tribes in the north of the province are lawless cannibals who by constant outrages and murders of traders long rendered the main trade route to Bauchi unsafe, and cut off the markets of the Benue valley and the Cameroon from the Hausa states. Only two routes, one via Wase and the other via Gatari, pass through this belt. In the south of the province a similar belt of hostile pagans closed the access to the Cameroon except by two routes, Takum and Beli. For Hausa traders to cross the Muri province was a work of such danger and expense that before the advent of British administration the attempt was seldom made. Muri came nominally under British control in 1900. The principal effort of the administration has been to control and open the trade routes. In 1904 an expedition against the northern cannibals resulted in the capture of their principal fortresses and the settlement and opening to trade of a large district, the various routes to the Benue being rendered safe. In 1905 an expedition against the Munshi, rendered necessary by an unprovoked attack on the Niger Company's station at Abinsi, had a good effect in reducing the riverain portion of this tribe to submission. The absence of any central native authority delayed the process of bringing the province under administrative control. Its government "has been organized on the same system as the rest of Northern Nigeria, and is under a British resident. It has been divided into three administrative divisions — east, central and west — with their respective head- quarters at Lau, Amar and Ibi. Provincial and native courts of justice have been established. The telegraph has been carried to the town of Muri. Muri is one of the provinces in which the slave trade was most active, and its position between German territory and the Hausa states rendered it in the early days of the British administration a favourite route for the smuggling of slaves. MURILLO, BARTOLOM6 ESTEBAN (1617-1682), Spanish painter, son of Caspar Esteban Murillo and Maria Perez, was born at Seville in 1617, probably at the end1 of the year, as he was baptized on the first of January 1618. Esteban-Murillo appears to have been the compound surname of the father, but some inquirers consider that, in accordance with a frequent Andalusian custom, the painter assumed the surname of his maternal grandmother, Elvira Murillo, in addition to that of his father. His parents (the father an artisan of a humble class), having been struck with the sketches which the boy was accustomed to make, placed him under the care of their distant relative, Juan del Castillo, the painter. Juan, a correct draughtsman and dry colourist, taught him all the mechanical parts of his profession with extreme care, and Murillo proved himself an apt pupil. The artistic appliances of his master's studio were not abundant, and were often of the simplest kind. A few casts, some stray fragments of sculpture and a lay figure formed the principal aids available for the Sevillian student of art. A living model was a luxury generally beyond the means of the school, but on great occasions the youths would strip in turn and proffer an arm or a leg to be .studied by their fellows. Objects of still life, however, were much studied by Murillo, and he early learnt to hit off the ragged urchins of Seville. Murillo in a few years painted as well as his master, and as stiffly. His two pictures of the Virgin, executed during this period, show how thoroughly he had mastered the style, with all its defects. Castillo was a kind man, but his removal to Cadiz in 1639-1640 threw his favourite pupil upon his own resources. The fine school of Zurbaran was too expensive for the poor lad; his parents were either dead or too poor to help him, and he was compelled to earn his bread by painting rough pictures for the " feria " or public fair of Seville. The religious daubs exposed at that mart were generally of as low an order as the prices paid for them. A " pintura de la feria " (a picture for the fair) was a proverbial expression for an execrably bad one; yet the street painters who thronged the market-place with their "clumsy saints and unripe Madonnas " not unfrequently rose to be able and even famous artists. This rough-and-ready practice, partly for the market-place, partly for converts in Mexico and Peru, for whom Madonnas and popular saints were produced and shipped off by the dozen, doubtless increased Murillo's manual dexterity; but, if we may judge from the picture of the " Virgin and Child" shown in the Murillo-room at Seville as belonging to this period, he made little improvement MURILLO in colouring or in general strength of design. Struck by the favourable change which travel had wrought upon the style of his brother artist Pedro de Moya, Murillo in 1642 resolved to make a journey to Flanders or Italy. Having bought a large quantity of canvas, he cut it into squares of different sizes, which he converted into pictures of a kind likely to sell. The American traders bought up his pieces, and he found himself sufficiently rich to carry out his design. He placed his sister, who was dependent on him, under the care of some friends, and without divulging his plans to any one set out for Madrid. On reaching the capital he waited on Velazquez, his fellow-townsman — then at the summit of his fortune — and asked for some introduc- tion to friends in Rome. The master liked the youth, and offered him lodging in his own house, and proposed to procure him admission to the royal galleries of the capital. Murillo accepted the offer, and here enjoyed the masterpieces of Italy and Flanders without travelling beyond the walls of Madrid. The next two years- were chiefly spent in copying from Ribera, Vandyck and Velazquez; and in 1644 he so astonished the latter with some of his efforts that they were submitted to the king and the court. His patron now urged him to go to Rome, and offered him letters to smooth his way; but Murillo preferred returning to his sister and his native Seville. The friars of the convent of San Francesco in Seville had about this time determined to adorn the walls of their small cloister in a manner worthy of their patron saint. But the brotherhood had no money; and after endless begging they found themselves incapable of employing an artist of name to execute the task. Murillo was needy, and offered his services; after balancing their own poverty against his obscurity the friars bade him begin. Murillo covered the walls with eleven large pictures of remarkable power and beauty — displaying by turns the strong colouring of Ribera, the lifelike truthfulness of Velazquez, and the sweetness of Vandyck. Among them were to be found representations of San Francesco, of San Diego, of Santa Clara and of San Gil. These pictures were executed in his earliest style, commonly called his frio or cold style. It was based chiefly on Ribera and Caravaggio, and was dark with a decided outline. This rich collection is no longer in Seville; Marshal Soult carried off ten of the works. The fame of these productions soon got abroad, and " El Claustro Chico " swarmed daily with artists and critics. Murillo was no longer friendless and unknown. The rich and the noble of Seville overwhelmed him with their commissions and their praises. In 1648 Murillo married a wealthy lady of rank, Dona Beatriz de Cabrera y Sotomayor, of the neighbourhood of Seville, and his house soon became the favourite resort of artists and connoisseurs. About this time he was associated with the land- scape-painter Yriarte — the two artists interchanging figures and landscapes for their respective works; but they did not finally agree, and the co-operation came to an end. Murillo now painted the well-known " Flight into Egypt," and shortly afterwards changed his earliest style of painting for his calido or warm style. His drawing was still well defined, but his outlines became softer and his figures rounder, and his colouring gained in warmth and transparency. His first picture of this style, according to Cean Bermudez, was a representation of " Our Lady of the Conception," and was painted in 1652 for the brotherhood of the True Cross; he received for it 2500 reals (£26). In 1655 he executed his two famous paintings of " San Leandro " and " San Isidoro " at the order of Don Juan Federigo, archdeacon of Carmona, which are now in the cathedral of Seville. These are two noble portraits, finished with great care and admirable effect, but the critics complain of the figures being rather short. His next picture, the " Nativity of the Virgin," painted for the chapter, is regarded as one of the most delightful specimens of his calido style. In the following year (1656) the same body gave him an order for a vast picture of San Antonio de Padua, for which he received 10,000 reals (£104). This is one of his most celebrated performances, and still hangs in the baptistery of the cathedral. It was " repaired " in 1833; the grandeur of the design, however, and the singular richness of the colouring may still be traced. The same year saw him engaged on four large semicircular pictures, designed by his friend and patron Don Justino Neve y Yevenes, to adorn the walls of the church of Santa Maria la Blanca. The first two (now in Madrid) were meant to illustrate the history of the Festival of Our Lady of the Snow, or the foundation of the Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The one represents the wealthy but childless Roman senator and his lady asleep and dreaming; the other exhibits the devout pair relating their dream to Pope Liberius. Of these two noble paintings the Dream is the finer, and in it is to be noticed the commence- ment of Murillo's third and last style, known as the vaporoso or vapoury. It should be noted, however, that the three styles are not strictly separable into date-periods; for the painter alternated the styles accordingly to his subject-matter or the mood of his inspiration, the calido being the most frequent. In the vaporoso method the well-marked outlines and careful drawing of his former styles disappear, the outlines are lost in the misty blending of the light and shade, and the general finish betrays more haste than was usual with Murillo. After many changes of fortune, these two pictures now hang in the Academy at Madrid. The remaining pieces executed for this small church were a " Virgin of the Conception " and a figure of " Faith." Soult laid his hands on these also, and they have not been recovered. In 1658 Murillo undertook and consummated a task which had hitherto baffled all the artists of Spain, and even royalty itself. This was the establishing of a public academy of art. By superior tact and good temper he overcame the vanity of Valdes Leal and the presumption of the younger Herrera, and secured their co-operation. The Academy of Seville was accordingly opened for the first time in January 1660, and Murillo and the second Herrera were chosen presidents. The former continued to direct it during the following year; but the calls of his studio induced him to leave it in other hands. It was then flourishing, but not for long. Passing over some half-length pictures of saints and a dark- haired Madonna, painted in 1668 for the chapter-room of the cathedral of his native city, we enter upon the most splendid period of Murillo's career. In 1661 Don Miguel Manara Vicen- telo de Leca, who had recently turned to a life of sanctity from one of the wildest profligacy, resolved to raise money for the restoration of the dilapidated Hospital de la Caridad, of whose pious gild he was himself a member. Manara commissioned his friend Murillo to paint eleven pictures for this edifice of San Jorge. Three of these pieces represented the " Annunciation," the " Infant Saviour," and the " Infant St John." The remaining eight are considered Murillo's masterpieces. They consist of " Moses striking the Rock," the " Return of the Prodigal," " Abraham receiving the Three Angels," the "Charity of San Juan de Dios," the " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes," " Our Lord healing the Paralytic," " St Peter released from Prison by the Angel," and " St Elizabeth of Hungary." These works occupied the artist four years, and in 1674 he received for his eight great pictures 78,115 reals or about £800. The " Moses, " the " Loaves and Fishes," the " San Juan," and the three subjects which we have named first, are still at Seville; the French carried off the rest, but the " St Elizabeth " and the " Prodigal Son " are now back in Spain. For compass and vigour the " Moses " stands first; but the " Prodigal's Return " and the " St Elizabeth " were considered by Bermudez the most perfect of all as works of art. The front of this famous hospital was also indebted to the genius of Murillo; five large designs in blue glazed tiles were executed from his drawings. He had scarcely completed the undertakings for this edifice when his favourite Franciscans again solicited his aid. He accordingly executed some twenty paintings for the humble little church known as the Convent de los Capucinos. Seventeen of these Capuchin pictures are preserved in the Museum of Seville. Of these the " Charity of St Thomas of Villanueva " is reckoned the best. Murillo himself was wont to call it " su lienzo " (his own picture). Another little piece of extraordinary MURIMUTH— MURKER 37 merit, which once hung in this church, is the " Virgin of the Napkin," believed to have been painted on a " servilleta " and presented to the cook of the Capuchin brotherhood as a memorial of the artist's pencil. In 1670 Murillo is said to have declined an invitation to court, preferring to labour among the brown coats of Seville. Eight years afterwards his friend the canon Justino again employed him to paint three pieces for the Hospital de los Venerables: the " Mystery of the Immaculate Conception," " St Peter Weeping," and the " Blessed Virgin." As a mark of esteem, Murillo next painted a full-length portrait of the canon. The spaniel at the feet of the priest has been known to call forth a snarl from a living dog. His portraits generally, though few, are of great beauty. Towards the close of his life Murillo executed a series of pictures illustrative of the life of " the glorious doctor " for the Augustinian convent at Seville. This brings us to the last work of the artist. Mounting a scaffolding one day at Cadiz (whither he had gone in 1681) to execute the higher parts of a large picture of the " Espousal of St Catherine," on which he was engaged for the Capuchins of that town, he stumbled, and fell so violently that he received a hurt from which he never recovered. The great picture was left unfinished, and the artist returned to Seville to die. He died as he had lived, a humble, pious, brave man, on the 3rd of April 1682 in the arms of the chevalier Pedro Nunez de Villavicencio, an intimate friend and one of his best pupils. Another of his numerous pupils was Sebastian Gomez, named " Murillo's Mulatto." Murillo left two sons (one of them at first an indifferent painter, afterwards a priest) and a daughter — his wife having died before him. Murillo has always been one of the most popular of painters — not in Spain alone. His works show great technical attainment without much style, and a strong feeling for ordinary nature and for truthful or sentimental expression without lofty beauty or ideal elevation. His ecstasies of Madonnas and Saints are the themes of some of his most celebrated achievements. Take as an example the " Immaculate Conception " (or " Assumption of the Virgin," for the titles may, with reference to Murillo's treatments of this subject, almost be interchanged) in the Louvre, a picture for which, on its sale from the Soult collection, one of the largest prices on record was given in 1852, some £24,600. His subjects may be divided into two great groups — the scenes from low life (which were a new experiment in Spanish art, so far as the subjects of children are concerned), and the Scriptural, legendary and religious works. The former, of which some salient specimens are in the Dulwich Gallery, are, although undoubtedly truthful, neither ingenious not sym- pathetic; sordid unsightliness and roguish squalor are their foundation. Works of this class belong mostly to the earlier years of Murillo's practice. The subjects in which the painter most excels are crowded compositions in which some act of saintliness, involving the ascetic or self-mortifying element, is being performed — subjects which, while repulsive in some of their details, emphasize the broadly human and the expressly Catholic conceptions of life. A famous example is the picture, now in the Madrid Academy, of St Elizabeth of Hungary washing patients afflicted with the scab or itch, and hence commonly named " El Tinoso." Technically considered, it unites his three styles of painting, more especially the cold and the warm. His power of giving atmosphere to combined groups of figures is one of the marked characteristics of Murillo's art; and he may be said to have excelled in this respect all his predecessors or con- temporaries of whatever school. Seville must still be visited by persons who wish to study Murillo thoroughly. A large number of the works which used to adorn this city have, however, been transported else- whither. In the Prado Museum at Madrid are forty-five specimens of Murillo — the " Infant Christ and the Baptist " (named " Los Nifios della Concha "), " St Ildefonso vested with a Chasuble by the Madonna," &c.; in the Museo della Trinidad, " Christ and the Virgin appearing to St Francis in a Cavern " (an immense composition), and various others. In the National Gallery, London, the chief example is the " Holy Family "; this was one of the master's latest works, painted in Cadiz. In public galleries in the United Kingdom there are altogether twenty-four examples by Murillo; in those of Spain, seventy-one. Murillo, who was the last pre-eminent painter of Seville, was an indefatigable and prolific worker, hardly leaving his painting- room save for his devotions in church; he realized large prices, according to the standard of his time, and made a great fortune. His character is recorded as amiable and soft, yet independent, subject also to sudden impulses, not unmixed with passion. See Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain (3 vols., London, 1848); Richard Ford, Handbook for Spain (London, 1855); Curtis, Catalogue of the Works of Velasquez and Murillo (1883); L. Alfonso, Murillo, el hombre, &c. (1886); C. Justi, Murillo (illustrated, 1892); P. Lefort, Murillo elfes eleves (1892); F. M. Tubino, Murillo, su epoca, &c. (1864; Eng. trans., 1879); Dr G. C. Williamson, Murillo (1902) ; C. S. Ricketts, Th* Prado (1903). (W. M. R.) MURIMUTH, ADAM (c. 1274-1347), English ecclesiastic and chronicler, was born in 1274 or 1275 and educated in the civil law at Oxford. Between 1312 and 1318 he practised in the papal curia at Avignon. Edward II. and Archbishop Winchelsey were among his clients, and his legal services secured for him canonries at Hereford and St Paul's, and the precentorship of Exeter Cathedral. In 1331 he retired to a country living (Wraysbury, Bucks), and devoted himself to writing the history of his own times. His Continuatio chronicarum, begun not earlier than 1325, starts from the year 1303, and was carried up to 1347, the year of his death. Meagre at first, it becomes fuller about 1340 and is specially valuable for the history of the French wars. Murimuth has no merits of style, and gives a bald narrative of events. But he incorporates many documents in the latter part of his book. The annals of St. Paul's which have been edited by Bishop Stubbs, are closely related to the work of Murimuth, but probably not from his pen. The Continuatio was carried on, after his death, by an anonymous writer to the year 1380. The only complete edition of the Continuatio chronicarum is that by E. M. Thompson (Rolls series, 1889). The preface to this edition, and to W. Stubbs's Chronicles of Edward I. and II., vol. i. (Rolls series, 1882), should be consulted. The anonymous continuation is printed in T. Hog's edition of Murimuth (Eng. Hist. Soc., London, 1846). (H. W. C. D.) MURKER, THOMAS (1475-1537?), German satirist, was born on the 24th of December 1475 at Oberehnheim near Strass- burg. In 1490 he entered the order of Franciscan monks, and in 1495 began a wandering life, studying and then teaching and preaching in Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Paris, Cracow and Strassburg. The emperor Maximilian I. crowned him in 1505 poeta laureatus; in 1506, he was created doctor theologiae, and in 1513 was ap- pointed custodian of the Franciscan monastery in Strassburg, an office which, on account of a scurrilous publication, he was forced to vacate the following year. Late in life, in 1518, he began the study of jurisprudence at the university of Basel, and in 1519 took the degree of doctor juris. After journeys in Italy and England, he again settled in Strassburg, but, disturbed by the Reformation, sought an exile at Lucerne in Switzerland in 1526. In 1533 he was appointed priest of Oberehnheim, where he died in 1537, or, according to some accounts, in 1536. Murner was an energetic and passionate character, who made enemies wherever he went. There is not a trace of human kindness in his satires, which were directed against the cor- ruption of the times, the Reformation, and especially against Luther. His most powerful satire — and the most virulent German satire of the period — is Von dem grossen lulherischen Narren, wie ihn Dr Murner beschworen hat. Among others may be mentioned Die Narrenbeschworung (1512); Die Schelmen- zunft (1512); Die Gauchmatt, which treats of enamoured fools (1519), and a translation of Virgil's Aeneid (1515) dedicated to the emperor Maximilian I. Murner also wrote the humor- ous Chartiludium logicae (1507) and the Ludus studentum freiburgensium (1511), besides a translation of Justinian's Institutiones (1519). All Murner's more important works have been republished in MUROM— MURRAY, A. S. critical editions; a selection was published by G. Balke in Kiirsch- ner's Deutsche Nationattiteratur (1890). Cf. W. Kawerau, Murner und die Kirche des Mittelalters (1890); and by the same writer, Murner und die deutsche Reformation (1891); also K. Ott, Uber Murners Verhdltniss zu Geiler (1896). MUROM, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, on the craggy left bank of the Oka, close to its confluence with the Tesha, 108 m. by rail S.E. of the city of Vladimir. Pop. (1900), 12,874. Muron has an old cathedral. It is the chief entrepot for grain from the basin of the Ewer Oka, and carries on an active trade with Moscow and Nizhniy-Novgorod. It is famed, as in ancient times, for kitchen-gardens, especially for its cucumbers and seed for canaries. Its once famous tanneries have lost their importance, but the manufacture of linen has increased; it has also steam flour-mills, distilleries, manufac- tories of soap and of iron implements. MURPHY, ARTHUR (1727-1805), Irish actor and dramatist, son of a Dublin merchant, was born at Clomquin, Roscommon, on the 27th of December 1727. From 1738 to 1744, under the name of Arthur French, he was a student at the English college at St Omer. He entered the counting-house of a mer- chant at Cork on recommendation of his uncle, Jeffery French, in 1747. A refusal to go to Jamaica alienated French's interest, and Murphy exchanged his situation for one in London. By the autumn of 1752 he was publishing the Gray's Inn Journal, a periodical in the style of the Spectator. Two years later he became an actor, and appeared in the title-roles of Richard III. and Othello; as Biron in Southerne's Fatal Marriage; and as Osmyn in Congreve's Mourning Bride. His first farce, The Apprentice, was given at Drury Lane on the 2nd of January 1756. It was followed, among other plays, by The Upholsterer (1757), The Orphan of China (1759), The Way to Keep Him (1760), All in the Wrong (1761), The Grecian Daughter (1772), and Know Your Own Mind (1777). These were almost all adaptations from the French, and were very successful, securing for their author both fame and wealth. .Murphy edited a political periodical, called the Test, in support of Henry Fox, by whose influence he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, although he had been refused at the Middle Temple in 1757 on account of his connexion with the stage. Murphy also wrote a biography of Fielding, an essay on the life and genius of Samuel Johnson and translations of Sallust and Tacitus. Towards the close of his life the office of a commissioner of bankrupts and a pension of £200 were conferred upon him by government. He died on the i8th of June 1805. MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853- ), American landscape painter, was born at Oswego, New York, on the nth of December 1853. He first exhibited at the National Academy of Design in 1876, and was made an associate in 1885 and a full academician two years later. He became a member of the Society of American Artists (1901) and of the American Water Color Society. MURPHY, ROBERT (1806-1843), British mathematician, the son of a poor shoemaker, was born at Mallow, in Ireland, in 1806. At the age of thirteen, while working as an apprentice in his father's shop, he became known to certain gentlemen in the neighbourhood as a self-taught mathematician. Through their exertions, after attending a classical school in his native town, he was admitted to Caius College, Cambridge, in 1825. Third wrangler in 1829, he was elected in the same year a fellow of his college. A course of dissipation led him into debt; his fellowship was sequestered for the benefit of his creditors, and he was obliged to leave Cambridge in December 1832. After living for some time with his relations in Ireland, he repaired to London in 1836, a penniless literary adventurer. In 1838 he became examiner in mathematics and physics at London University. He had already contributed several mathematical papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions (1831-1836), Philosophical Magazine (1833-1842), and the Philosophical Transactions (1837), and had published Elementary Principles of the Theories of Electricity (1833). He now wrote for the " Library of Useful Knowledge " a Treatise on the Theory of Algebraical Equations (1839). He died on the i2th of March 1843. MURPHYSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, on the Big Muddy River, about 57 m. N. of Cairo. Pop. (1890), 3880; (1900), 6463, including 557 foreign-born and 456 negroes; (1910), 7485. It is served by the Illinois Central, the Mobile & Ohio and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways. It is the centre for a farming region, in which there are deposits of coal, iron, lead and shale, and there are various manufactures in the city. Murphysboro was incorporated in 1867, and re- incorporated in 1875. MURRAIN (derived through O. Fr. marine, from Lat. mori, to die), a general term for various virulent diseases in domesticated animals, synonymous with plague or epizooty. The principal diseases are dealt with under RINDERPEST; PLEURO-PNEUMONIA; ANTHRAX; and FOOT AND MOUTH PISEASE. See also VETER- INARY SCIENCE. MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF. The earldom of Moray was one of the seven original earldoms of Scotland, its lands corre- sponding roughly to the modern counties of Inverness and Ross. Little is known of the earls until about 1314, when Sir Thomas Randolph, a nephew of King Robert Bruce, was created earl of Moray (q.v.), and the Randolphs held the earldom until 1346, when the childless John Randolph, 3rd earl of this line and a soldier of repute, was killed at the battle of Neville's Cross. According to some authorities the earldom was then held by John's sister Agnes (c. 1312-1369) and her husband, Patrick Dunbar, earl of March or Dunbar (c. 1285-1368). However this may be, in 1359 an English prince, Henry Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster (d. 1361), was made earl of Moray by King David II.; but in 1372 John Dunbar (d. 1391), a graiftlson of Sir Thomas Randolph and a son-in-law of Robert II., obtained the earldom. The last of the Dunbar earls was James Dunbar, who was murdered in August 1429, and after this date his daughter Elizabeth and her husband, Archibald Douglas (d. 1455), called themselves earl and countess of Moray. The next family to bear this title was an illegitimate branch of the royal house of Stuart, James IV. creating his natural son, James Stuart (c. 1490-1544), earl of Moray. James died without sons, and after the title had been borne for a short time by George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly (c. 1514-1562), who was killed at Corrichie in 1562, it was bestowed in 1562 by Mary Queen of Scots upon her half-brother, an illegitimate son of James V. This was the famous regent, James Stuart, earl of Moray, or Murray (see below), who was murdered in January 1570; after this event a third James Stuart, who had married the regent's daughter Elizabeth (d. 1591), held the earldom. He, who was called the " bonny earl," was killed by his heredi- tary enemies, the Gordons, in February 1592, when his son James (d. 1638) succeeded to the title. The earldom of Moray has remained in the Stuart family since this date. Alexander, the 4th earl (d. 1701), was secretary of state for Scotland from 1680 to 1689; and in 1796 Francis, the 9th earl (1737-1810), was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Stuart. See vol. vi. of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul (1909). MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904), British archaeologist, was born at Arbroath on the 8th of January 1841, and educated there, at Edinburgh high school and at the universities of Edinburgh and Berlin. In 1867 he entered the British Museum as an assistant in the department of Greek and Roman antiquities under Sir Charles Newton, whom he suc- ceeded in 1886. His younger brother, George Robert Milne Murray (b. 1858), was made keeper of the botanical department in 1895, the only instance of two brothers becoming heads of departments at the museum. In 1873 Dr Murray published a Manual of Mythology, and in the following year contributed to the Contemporary Review two articles — one on the Homeric question — which led to a friendship with Mr Gladstone, the other on Greek painters. In 1880-1883 he brought out his History of Greek Sculpture, which at once became a standard work. In 1886 he was selected by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland to deliver the Rhind lectures on archaeology, out of MURRAY, D.— MURRAY, LORD GEORGE 39 which grew his Handbook of Greek Archaeology (1892). In 1894-1896 Dr Murray directed some excavations in Cyprus undertaken by means of a bequest of £2000 from Miss Emma Tournour Turner. The objects obtained are described and illustrated in Excavations in Cyprus, published by the trustees of the museum in 1900. Among Dr Murray's other official publications are three folio volumes on Terra-cotta Sarcophagi, White Athenian Vases and Designs from Greek Vases. In 1898 he wrote for the Portfolio a monograph on Greek bronzes, founded on lectures delivered at the Royal Academy in that year, and he contributed many articles on archaeology to standard publications. In recognition of his services to archaeo- logy he was made LL.D. of Glasgow University in 1887 and elected a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1900. He died in March 1904. MURRAY, DAVID (1840- ), Scottish painter, was born in Glasgow, and spent some years in commercial pursuits before he practised as an artist. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1891 and academician in 1905; and also became an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy and of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours, and a member of the Royal Scottish Water Colour Society. He is a landscape painter of distinction, and two of his pictures, " My Love is gone a-sailing " (1884) and " In the Country of Constable " (1903), have been bought for the National Gallery of British Art. " Young Wheat," painted in 1890, is one of his most noteworthy works. MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824-1881), English journalist, was born in 1824, the natural son of the 2nd duke of Buckingham. Educated at Magdalen Hall (Hertford College), Oxford, he entered the diplomatic service through the influence of Lord 'Palmerston, and in 1851 joined the British • embassy at Vienna as attache. At the same time he agreed to act as Vienna correspondent of a London daily paper, a breach of the conventions of the British Foreign Office which cost him his post. In 1852 he was transferred to Hanover, and thence to Constantinople, and finally, in 1855, was made consul-general at Odessa. In 1868 he returned to England, and devoted himself to journalism. He contributed to the early numbers of Vanity Fair, and in 1869 founded a clever but abusive society paper, the Queen's Messenger. For a libel published in this paper Lord Carrington horsewhipped him on the doorstep of a London club. Murray was subsequently charged with perjury for denying on oath his authorship of the article. Remanded on bail, he escaped to Paris, where he subsequently lived, acting as correspondent of various London papers. In 1874 he helped Edmund Yates to found the World. Murray died at Passy on the aoth of December 1881. His score of books, several of which were translated into French and published in Paris, include French Pictures in English Chalk (1876-1878); The Roving Englishman in Turkey (1854); Men of the Second Empire (1872); Young Brown (1874); Sidelights on English Society (1881) ; and Under the Lens: Social Photographs (1885). MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694-1760), Scottish Jacobite general, fifth son of John, ist duke of Atholl, by his first wife, Catherine, daughter of the 3rd duke of Hamilton, was born at Huntingtower, near Perth, on the 4th of October 1694. He joined the army in Flanders in June 1712; in 1715, contrary to their father's wishes, he and his brothers, the marquis of Tullibardine and Lord Charles Murray, joined the Jacobite rebels under the earl of Mar, each brother commanding a regiment of men of Atholl. Lord Charles was taken prisoner at Preston, but after the collapse of the rising Lord George escaped with Tullibardine to South Uist, and thence to France. In 1719 Murray took part in the Jacobite attempt in conjunction with the Spaniards in the western highlands, under the command of Tullibardine and the earl marischal, which terminated in " the affair of Glenshiel " on the roth of June, when he was wounded while commanding the right wing of the Jacobites. After hiding for some months in the highlands he reached Rotter- dam in May 1720. There is no evidence for the statement that Murray served in the Sardinian army, and little is known of his life on the continent till 1724, when he returned to Scotland, where in the following year he was granted a pardon. The duke of Atholl died in 1724 and was succeeded in the title by his second son James, owing to the attainder of Tullibardine; and Lord George leased from his brother the old family property of Tullibardine in Strathearn, where he lived till 1745. On the eve of the Jacobite rising of 1745 the duke of Perth made overtures to Lord George Murray on behalf of the Pretender; but even after the landing of Charles Edward in Scotland in July, accompanied by Tullibardine, Murray's attitude remained doubtful. He accompanied his brother the duke to Crieff on the 2ist of August to pay his respects to Sir John Cope, the commander of the government troops, and he permitted the duke to appoint him deputy-sheriff of Perthshire. It has been suggested that Murray acted with duplicity, but his hesitation was natural and genuine; and it was not till early in September, when Charles Edward was at Blair Castle, which had been vacated by the duke of Atholl on the prince's approach, that Murray decided to espouse the Stuart cause. He then wrote to his brother explaining that he did so for conscientious reasons, while realizing the risk of ruin it involved. On joining the Jacobite army Lord George received a commission as lieu- tenant-general, though the prince ostentatiously treated him with want of confidence; and he was flouted by the Irish adven- turers who were the Pretenderis trusted advisers. At Perth Lord George exerted himself with success to introduce discipline and organization in the army he was to command, and he gained the confidence of the highland levies, with whose habits and methods of fighting he was familiar. He also used his influence to prevent the exactions and arbitrary interference with civil rights which Charles was too ready to sanction on the advice of others. At Prestonpans, on the 2ist of September, Lord George, who led the Jacobite left wing in person, was practically com- mander-in-chief, and it was to his able generalship that the victory was mainly due. During the six weeks' occupation of Edinburgh he did useful work in the further organization and disciplining of the army. He opposed Charles's plan of invading England, and when his judgment was overruled he prevailed on the prince to march into Cumberland, which he knew to be favourable ground for highlander tactics, instead of advancing against General Wade, whose army was posted at Newcastle. He conducted the siege of Carlisle, but on the surrender of the town on the I4th of November he resigned his command on the ground that his authority had been insufficiently upheld by the prince, and he obtained permission to serve as a volunteer in the ranks of the Atholl levies. The dissatisfaction, however, of the army with the appointment of the duke of Perth to succeed him compelled Charles to reinstate Murray, who accord- ingly commanded the Jacobites in the march to Derby. Here on the sth of December a council was held at which Murray urged the necessity for retreat, owing to the failure of the English Jacobites to support the invasion and the absence of aid from France. As Murray was supported by the council the retreat was ordered, to the intense chagrin of Charles, who never forgave him; but the failure of the enterprise was mainly chargeable to Charles himself, and it was not without justice that Murray's aide de camp, the chevalier Johnstone, declared that " had Prince Charles slept during the whole of the expedition, and allowed Lord George Murray to act for him according to his own judgment, he would have found the crown of Great Britain on his head when he awoke." Lord George commanded the rear-guard during the retreat; and this task, rendered doubly dangerous by the proximity of Cumberland in the rear and Wade on the flank, was made still more difficult by the incapacity and petulance of the Pretender. By a skilfully fought rear- guard action at Clifton Moor, Lord George enabled the army to reach Carlisle safely and without loss of stores or war material; and on the 3rd of January 1746 the force entered Stirling, where they were joined by reinforcements from Perth. The prince laid siege to Stirling Castle, while Murray defeated General Hawley near Falkirk; but the losses of the Jacobites by sickness and desertion, and the approach of Cumberland, made retreat MURRAY, JAMES— MURRAY, EARL OF to the Highlands an immediate necessity, in which the prince was compelled to acquiesce; his resentment was such that he gave ear to groundless suggestions that Murray was a traitor, which the latter's failure to capture his brother's stronghold of Blair Castle did nothing to refute. In April 1746 the Jacobite army was in the neighbourhood of Inverness, and the prince decided to give battle to the duke of Cumberland. Charles took up a position on the left bank of the Nairn river at Culloden Moor, rejecting Lord George's Murray advice to select a much stronger position on the opposite bank. The battle of Culloden, where the Stuart cause was ruined, was fought on the i6th of April 1746. On the following day the duke of Cumberland intimated to his troops that " the public orders' of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter"; Hanoverian news-sheets printed what purported to be copies of such an order, and the historian James Ray and other con- temporary writers gave further currency to a calumny that has been repeated by modern authorities. Original copies of Lord George Murray's " orders at Culloden " are in existence, one of which is among Cumberland's own papers, while another was in the possession of Lord Hardwicke, the judge who tried the Jacobite peers in 1746, and they contain no injunction to refuse quarter. After the defeat Murray conducted a remnant of the Jacobite army to Ruthven, and prepared to organize further resistance. Prince Charles, however, had determined to aban- don the enterprise, and at Ruthven Lord George received an order dismissing him from the prince's service, to which he replied in a letter upbraiding Charles for his distrust and mismanage- ment. Charles's belief in the general's treachery was shared by several leading Jacobites, but there appears no ground for the suspicion. From the moment he threw in his lot with the exiled prince's cause Lord George Murray never deviated in his loyalty and devotion, and his generalship was deserving of the highest praise; but the discipline he enforced and jealousy of his authority made enemies of some of those to whom Charles was more inclined to listen than to the general who gave him sound but unwelcome advice. Murray escaped to the continent in December 1746, and was graciously received in Rome by the Old Pretender, who granted him a pension; but in the following year when he went to Paris Charles Edward refused to see him. Lord George lived at various places abroad until his death, which occurred at Medem- blik in Holland on the nth of October 1760. He married in 1728 Amelia, daughter and heiress of James Murray of Strowan and Glencarse, by whom he had three sons and two daughters. His eldest son John became 3rd duke of Atholl in 1764; the two younger sons became lieutenant-general and vice-admiral respectively in the British service. See A Military History of Perthshire, ed. by the marchioness of Tullibardine (2 vols., London, 1908), containing a memoir of Lord George Murray and a facsimile copy of his orders at Culloden; The Atholl Chronicles, ed. by the duke of Atholl (privately printed) ; The Chevalier James de Johnstone, Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 (jrd ed., London, 1822); James Ray, Compleat Historic of the Rebel- lion, 1745-1746 (London, 1754); Robert Patten, History of the late Rebellion (2nd ed., London, 1717); Memoirs of Sir John Murray of Brpughton, ed. by R. F. Bell (Edinburgh, 1898); Andrew Henderson, History of the Rebellion, 1745-1746 (2nd ed., London, 1748). (R. J- M.) MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1710-1794), British governor of Canada, was a younger son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank (d. 1736). Having entered the British army, he served with the 1 5th Foot in the West Indies, the Netherlands and Brittany, and became lieut.enant-colonel of this regiment by purchase in 1751. In 1757 he led his men to North America to take part in the war against France. He commanded a brigade at the siege of Louisburg, was one of Wolfe's three brigadiers in the expedition against Quebec, and commanded the left wing of the army in the famous battle in September 1759. After the British victory and the capture of the city, Murray was left in command of Quebec; having strengthened its fortifications and taken measures to improve the morale of his men, he defended it in April and May 1760 against the attacks of the French, who were soon compelled to raise the siege. The British troops had been decimated by disease, and it was only a remnant that Murray now led to join General Amherst at Montreal, and to be present when the last batch of French troops in Canada surrendered. In October 1760 he was appointed governor of Quebec, and he became governor of Canada after this country had been formally ceded to Great Britain in 1763. In this year he quelled a dangeious mutiny, and soon afterwards his alleged partiality for the interests of the French Canadians gave offence to the British settlers; they asked for his recall, and in 1766 he retired from his post. After an inquiry in the House of Lords, he was exonerated from the charges which had been brought against him. In 1774 Murray was sent to Minorca as governor, and in 1781, while he was in charge of this island, he was besieged in Fort St Philip by a large force of French and Spaniards. After a stubborn resistance, which lasted nearly seven months, he was obliged to surrender the place; and on his return to England he was tried by a court-martial, at the instance of Sir William Draper, who had served under him in Minorca as lieutenant- governor. He was acquitted and he became a general in 1783. He died on the i8th of June 1794. Murray's only son was James Patrick Murray (1782-1834), a major-general and member of parliament. MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837- ), British lexicographer, was born at Denholm, near Hawick, Roxburghshire, and after a local elementary education proceeded to Edinburgh, and thence to the university of London, where he graduated B.A. in 1873. Sir James Murray, who received honorary degrees from several universities, both British and foreign, was engaged in scholastic work for thirty years, from 1855 to 1885, chiefly at Hawick and Mill Hill. During this time his reputation as a philologist was increasing, and he was assistant examiner in English at the University of London from 1875 to 1879 and president of the Philological Society of London from 1878 to 1880, and again from 1882 to 1884. It was in connexion with this society that he undertook the chief work of his life, the editing of the New English Dictionary, based on materials collected by the society. These materials, which had accumulated since 1857, when the society first projected the publication of a dictionary on philological principles, amounted to an enormous quantity, of which an idea may be formed from the fact that Dr Furnivall sent in " some ton and three-quarters of materials which had accumulated under his roof." After negotiations extending over a considerable period, the contracts between the society, the delegates of the Clarendon Press, and the editor, were signed on the ist of March 1879, and Murray began the examination and arrangement of the raw material, and the still more troublesome work of re-animating and main- taining the enthusiasm of " readers." In 1885 he removed from Mill Hill to Oxford, where his Scriptorium came to rank among the institutions of the University city. The first volume of the dictionary was printed at the Clarendon Press, Oxford, in 1888. A full account of its beginning and the manner of working up the materials will be found in Murray 's presidential address to the Philological Society in 1879, while reports of its progress are given in the addresses by himself and other presidents in subsequent years. In addition to his work as a philologist, Murray was a frequent contributor to the transac- tions of the various antiquarian and archaeological societies of which he is a member; and he wrote the article on the English language for this Encyclopaedia. In 1885 he received the honorary degree of M.A. from Balliol College; he was an original fellow of the British Academy, and in 1908 he was knighted. MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531- 1570), regent of Scotland, was an illegitimate son of James V. of Scotland by Margaret Erskine, daughter of John Erskine, earl of Mar. In 1538 he was appointed prior of the abbey of St Andrews in order that James V. might obtain possession of its funds. Educated at St Andrews University, he attacked, in September 1549, an English force which had made a descent on the Fife coast, and routed it with great slaughter. In addition to the priory of St Andrews, he received those also of Pittenweem and Macon in France, but manifested no vocation MURRAY, JOHN for a monastic life. The discourses of Knox, which he heard at Calder, won his approval, and shortly after the return of the reformer to Scotland in 1559, James Stuart left the party of the queen regent and joined the lords of the congregation, who resolved forcibly to abolish the Roman service. After the return of Queen Mary in 1561, he became her chief adviser, and his cautious firmness was for a time effectual in inducing her to adopt a policy of moderation towards the reformers. At the beginning of 1562 he was created earl of Murray, a dignity also held by George Gordon, earl of Huntly, who, however, had lost the queen's favour. Only a few days later he was made earl of Mar,*but as this title was claimed by John, Lord Erskine, Stuart resigned it and received a second grant of the earldom of Murray, Huntly by this time having been killed in battle. Henceforward he was known as the earl of Moray, the alternative Murray being a more modern and less correct variant. About this time the earl married Anne (d. 1583), daughter of William Keith, ist Earl Marischal. After the defeat and death of Huntly, the leader of the Catholic party, the policy of Murray met for a time with no obstacle, but he awakened the displeasure of the queen by his efforts in behalf of Knox when the latter was accused of high treason; and as he was also opposed to her marriage with Darnley, he was after that event declared an outlaw and took refuge in England. Returning to Scotland after the murder of Rizzio, he was pardoned by the queen. He contrived, however, to be away at the time of Darnley's assassination, and avoided the tangles of the marriage with Bothwell by going to France. After the abdication of Queen Mary at Lochleven, in July 1567, he was appointed regent of Scotland. When Mary escaped from Lochleven (May 2, 1568), the duke of Chatel- herault and other Catholic nobles rallied to her standard, but Murray and the Protestant lords gathered their adherents, defeated her forces at Langside, near Glasgow (May 13, 1568), and compelled her to flee to England. Murray displayed promptness in baffling Mary's schemes, suppressed the border thieves, and ruled firmly, resisting the temptation to place the crown on his own head. He observed the forms of personal piety; possibly he shared the zeal of the reformers, while he moderated their bigotry. But he reaped the fruits of the conspiracies which led to the murders of Rizzio and Darnley. He amassed too great a fortune from the estates of the Church to be deemed a pure reformer of its abuses. He pursued his sister with a calculated animosity which would not have spared her life had this been necessary to his end or been favoured by Elizabeth. The mode of producing the casket letters and the false charges added by Buchanan, deprive Murray of any claim to have been an honest accuser. His reluctance to charge Mary with complicity in the murder of Darnley was feigned, and his object was gained when he was allowed to table the accusation without being forced to prove it. Mary remained a captive under suspicion of the gravest guilt, while Murray ruled Scotland in her stead, supported by nobles who had taken part in the steps which ended in Bothwell's deed. During the year between his becoming regent and his death several events occurred for which he has been censured, but which were necessary for his security: the betrayal to Elizabeth of the duke of Norfolk and of the secret plot for the liberation of Mary; the imprisonment of the earl of Northumberland, who after the failure of his rising in the north of England had taken refuge in Scotland; and the charge brought against Maitland of Leth- ington of complicity in Darnley's murder. Lethington was committed to custody, but was rescued by Kirkaldy of Grange, who held the castle of Edinburgh, and while there " the chame- leon," as Buchanan named Maitland hi his famous invective, gained over those in the castle, including Kirkaldy. Murray was afraid to proceed with the charge on the day of trial, while Kirkaldy and Maitland held the castle, which became the stronghold of the deposed queen's party. It has been suspected that Maitland and Kirkaldy were cognizant of the design of Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh to murder Murray, for he had been with them in the castle. This has been ascribed to private vengeance for the ill-treat inent of his wife; but the feud of the Hamiltons with the regent is the most reasonable explanation. As he rode through Linlithgow Murray was shot on the 2ist of January 1570 from a window by Hamilton, who had made careful preparation for the murder and his own escape. He was buried in the south aisle of St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, amid general mourning. Knox preached the sermon and Buchanan furnished the epitaph, both panegyrics. The elder of his two daughters, Elizabeth, married James Stuart (d. 1592), son of James, ist Lord Doune, who succeeded to the earldom of Murray in right of his wife. The materials for the life of Murray are found in the records and documents of the time, prominent among which are the various Calendars of State Papers. Mention must also be made of the many books which treat of Mary, Queen of Scots, and of the histories of the time-^- especially J. A. Froude, History of England, and Andrew Lang, History of Scotland. MURRAY, JOHN, the name for several generations of a great firm of London publishers, founded by John McMurray (1745- I793). a native of Edinburgh and a retired lieutenant of marines, who in 1768 bought the book business of William Sandby in Fleet Street, and, dropping the Scottish prefix, called himself John Murray. He was one of the twenty original proprietors of the Morning Chronicle, and started the monthly English Review (1783-1796). Among his publications were Mjtford's Greece, Langhorne's Plutarch's Lives, and the first part of Isaac D 'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature. He died on the 6th of November 1793. JOHN MURRAY (2) (1778-1843), his son, was then fifteen. During his minority the business was conducted by Samuel Highley, who was admitted a partner, but in 1803 the partner- ship was dissolved. Murray soon began to show the courage in literary speculation which earned for him later the name given him by Lord Byron of " the Anak of publishers." In 1807 he took a share with Constable in publishing Marmion, and became part owner of the Edinburgh Review, although with the help of Canning he launched in opposition the Quarterly Review (Feb. 1809), with William Gifford as its editor, and Scott, Canning, Southey, Hookham Frere and John Wilson Croker among its earliest contributors. Murray was closely connected with Constable, but, to his distress, was compelled in 1813 to break this association on account of Constable's business methods, which, as he foresaw, led to disaster. In 1811 the first two cantos of Childe Harold were brought to Murray by R. C. Dallas, to whom Byron had presented them. Murray paid Dallas 500 guineas for the copyright. In 1812 he bought the pub- lishing business of William Miller (1769-1844), and migrated to 50, Albemarle Street. Literary London flocked to his house, and Murray became the centre of the publishing world. It was in his drawing-room that Scott and Byron first met, and here, in 1824, after the death of Lord Byron, the MS. of his memoirs, considered by Gifford unfit for publication, was destroyed. A close friendship existed between Byron and his publisher, but for political reasons business relations ceased after the publication of the 5th canto of Don Juan. Murray paid Byron some £20,000 for his various poems. To Thomas Moore he gave nearly £5000 for writing the life of Byron, and to Crabbe £3000 for Tales of the Hall. He died on the 27th of June 1843. His son, JOHN MURRAY (3) (1808-1892), inherited much of his business tact and judgment. " Murray's Handbooks " for travellers were issued under his editorship, and he himself wrote several volumes (see his article on the " Handbooks " in Murray's Magazine, November 1889). He published many books of travel; also Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, The Speaker's Commentary, Smith's Dictionaries; and works by Hallam, Gladstone, Lyell, Layard, Dean Stanley, Borrow, Darwin, Living- stone and Samuel Smiles. He died on the 2nd of April 1892, and was succeeded by his eldest son, JOHN MURRAY (4) (b. 1851), under whom, in association with his brother, A. H. Hallam Murray, the firm was continued. See Samuel Smiles, A Publisher and his Friends, Memoirs and Correspondence of the late John Murray . . . (1891), for the second John Murray; a series of three articles by F. Espinasse on " The MURRAY, J.— MURREE House of Murray," in The Critic (Jan. 1860) ; and a paper by the same writer in Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Sept. 1885). See the Letters and Journals of Byron (ed. Prothero, 1898-1901). MURRAY, JOHN (1778-1820), Scottish chemist, was born at Edinburgh in 1778 and died there on the 22nd of July 1820. He graduated M.D. at St Andrews in 1814, and attained some reputation as a lecturer on chemistry and materia medica. He was an opponent of Sir Humphry Davy's theory of chlorine, supporting the view that the substance contained oxygen, and it was in the course of experiments made to disprove his argu- ments that Dr John Davy discovered phosgene or carbonyl chloride. He was a diligent writer of textbooks, including Elements of Chemistry (1801); Elements of Materia Medica and Pharmacy (1804), A System of Chemistry (1806), and (anony- mously) A Comparative View of the Huttonian and Neptunian Systems of Geology. He is sometimes confused with another John Murray (1786-1851), a popular lecturer at mechanics' institutes. The two men carried on a dispute about the inven- tion of a miners' safety lamp in the Phil. Mag. for 1817. MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841- ), British geographer and naturalist, was born at Coburg, Ontario, Canada, on the 3rd of March 1841, and after some years' local schooling studied in Scotland and on the Continent. He was then engaged for some years in natural history work at Bridge of Allan. In 1868 he visited Spitsbergen on a whaler, and in 1872, when the voyage of the " Challenger " was projected, he was appointed one of the naturalists to the expedition. At the conclusion of the voyage he was made principal assistant in drawing up the scientific results, and in 1882 he became editor of the Reports, which were completed in 1896. He compiled a summary of the results, and was part-author of the Narrative of the Cruise and of the Report on Deep-sea Deposits. He also published numerous important papers on oceanography and marine biology. In 1898 he was made K.C.B., and the received many distinctions from the chief scientific societies of the world. Apart from his work in connexion with the " Challenger " Reports, he went in 1880 and 1882 on expeditions to explore the Faeroe Channel, and between 1882 and 1894 was the prime mover in various biological investigations in Scottish waters. In 1897, with the generous financial assistance of Mr Laurence Pullar and a staff of specialists, he began a bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland, the results of which, with a fine series of illustrations and maps, were published in 1910 in six volumes. He took a leading part in the expedition which started in April 1910 for the physiological and biological investigation of the North Atlantic Ocean on the Norwegian vessel " Michael Sars." MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745-1826), Anglo-American gram- marian, was born at Swatara, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of April 1745. His father, a Quaker, was a leading New York merchant. At the age of fourteen he was placed in his father's office, but he ran away to a school in Burlington, New Jersey. He was brought back to New York, but his arguments against a commercial career prevailed, and he was allowed to study law. On being called to the bar he practised successfully in New York. In 1783 he was able to retire, and in 1784 he left America for England. Settling at Holgate, near York, he devoted the rest of his life to literary pursuits. His first book was Power of Religion on the Mind (1787). In 1795 he issued his Grammar of the English Language. This was followed, among other analogous works, by English Exercises, and the English Reader. These books passed through several editions, and the Grammar was the standard textbook for fifty years throughout England and America. Lindley Murray died on the i6th of January 1826. See the Memoir o/_ the Life and Writings of Lindley Murray (partly autobiographical), by Elizabeth Frank (1826); Life of Murray, by W. H. Egle (New York, 1885). MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673), one- of the founders of the Royal Society, was the son of Sir Robert , Murray of Craigie, Ayrshire, and was born about the beginning of the i-7th century. In early life he served in the French army, and, winning the favour of Richelieu, rose to the rank of colonel. On the outbreak of the Civil War he returned to Scotland and collected recruits for the royal cause. The triumph of Ciomwell compelled him for a time to return to France, but he took part in the Scottish insurrection in favour of Charles II. in 1650, and was named lord justice clerk and a privy councillor. These appointments, which on account of the overthrow of the royal cause proved to be at the time only nominal, were confirmed at the Restoration in 1660. Soon after this Sir Robert Murray began to take a prominent part in the deliberations of a club instituted in London for the discussion of natural science, or, as it was then called, the " new philosophy." When it was proposed to obtain a charter for the society he undertook to interest the king in the matter, the result being that on the i5th of July 1662 the club was incorporated by charter under the designation of the Royal Society. Murray was its first president. He died in June 1673. MURRAY, the largest river in Australia. It rises in the Australian Alps in 36° 40' S. and 147° E., and flowing north-west skirts the borders of New South Wales and Victoria until it passes into South Australia, shortly after which it bends south- ward into Lake Alexandrina, a shallow lagoon, whence it makes its way to the sea at Encounter Bay by a narrow opening at 35° 35' S. and 138° 55' E. Near its source the Murray Gates, precipitous rocks, tower above it to the height of 3000 ft.; and the earlier part of its course is tortuous and uneven. Farther on it loses so much by evaporation in some parts as to become a series of pools. Its length till it debouches into Lake Alexandrina is 1120 m., its average breadth in summer is 240 ft., its average depth about i6ft.;and it drains an area of about 270,000 sq. m. For small steamers it is navigable as far as Albury. Periodically it overflows, causing wide inundations. The principal tributaries of the Murray are those from New South Wales, including the Edward River, the united streams of the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan, and the Darling or Callewatta. In 1829 Captain Sturt traced the Murrumbidgee River till it debouched into the Murray, which he followed down to Lake Alexandrina, but he was compelled, after great hardships, to return without discovering its mouth. In 1831 Captain Barker, while attempting to discover this, was murdered by the natives. MURRAY COD (Oligorus macquariensis) , one of the largest of the numerous fresh-water Perciform fishes of Australia, and the most celebrated for its excellent flavour. It belongs to the family Serranidae. Its taxonomic affinities lie in the direc- tion of the perch and not of the cod family. The shape of the body is that of a perch, and the dorsal fin consists of a spinous Murray Cod. and rayed portion, the number of spines being eleven. The length of the spines varies with age, old individuals having shorter spines — that is, a lower dorsal fin. The form of the head and the dentition also resemble those of a perch, but none of the bones of the head has a serrated margin. The scales are small. The colour varies in different localities; it is generally brownish, with a greenish tinge and numerous small dark green spots. As implied by the name, this fish has its headquarters in the Murray River and its tributaries, but it occurs also in the northern parts of New South Wales. It is the most important food fish of these rivers, and is said to attain a length of more than 3 ft. and a weight of 1 20 Ib. MURREE, a town and sanatorium of British India, in the Rawalpindi district of the Punjab, 7517 ft. above the sea. about five hours' journey by cart-road from Rawalpindi town, and the starting-point for Kashmir. The houses are built on the MURSHIDABAD— MUSCAT 43 summit and sides of an irregular ridge, and command magnifi- cent views over forest-clad hills and deep valleys, studded with villages and cultivated fields, with the snow-covered peaks of Kashmir in the background. The population in 1901 was 1844;^ but these figures omit the summer visitors, who probably number 10,000. The garrison generally consists of three mountain batteries. Since 1877 the summer offices of the provincial government have been transferred to Simla. The Murree brewery, one of the largest in India, is the chief industrial establishment. The Lawrence Military Asylum for the children of European soldiers is situated here. MURSHIDABAD, or MOORSHEEDABAD, a town and district of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The administrative headquarters of the district are at Berhampur. The town of Murshidabad is on the left bank of the Bhagirathi or old sacred channel of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 15,168. The city of Murshidabad was the latest Mahommedan capital of Bengal. In 1704 the nawab Murshid Kulia Khan changed the seat of government from Dacca to Maksudabad, which he called after his own name. The great family of Jagat Seth maintained their position as state bankers at Murshidabad from generation to generation. Even after the conquest of Bengal by the British, Murshidabad remained for some time the seat of administration. Warren Hastings removed the supreme civil and criminal courts to Calcutta in 1772, but in 1775 the latter court was brought back to Murshidabad again. In 1 790, under Lord Cornwallis, the entire revenue and judicial staffs were fixed at Calcutta. The town is still the residence of the nawab, who ranks as the first nobleman of the province with the style of nawab bahadur of Murshidabad, instead of nawab nazim of Bengal. His palace, dating from 1837, is a magnificent building in Italian style. The city is crowded with other palaces, mosques, tombs, and gardens, and retains such industries as carving in ivory, gold and silver embroidery, and silk-weaving. A college is maintained for the education of the nawab 's family. The DISTRICT OF MURSHIDABAD has an area of 2143 sq. m. It is divided into two nearly equal portions by the Bhagirathi, the ancient channel of the Ganges. The tract to the west, known as the Rarh, consists of hard clay and nodular limestone. The general level is high, but interspersed with marshes and seamed by hill torrents. The Bagri or eastern half belongs to alluvial plains of eastern Bengal. There are few permanent swamps; but the whole country is low-lying, and liable to annual inundation. In the north-west are a few small detached hillocks, said to be of basaltic formation. Pop. (1901), 1,333,184, show- ing an increase of 6-6% in the decade. The principal industry is that of silk, formerly of much importance, and now revived with government assistance. A narrow-gauge railway crosses the district, from the East Indian line at Nalhati to Azimganj on the Bhagirathi, the home of many rich Jain merchants; and a branch of the Eastern Bengal railway has been opened. HUS, the name of a Roman family of the plebeian Decian gens, (i) PUBLICS DECIUS Mus won his first laurels in the Samnite War, when in 343 B.C., while serving as tribune of the soldiers, he rescued the Roman main army* frdm an apparently hopeless position (Livy vii. 34). In 340, as consul with T. Manlius Torquatus as colleague, he commanded in the Latin War. The decisive battle was fought near Mt Vesuvius. The consuls, in consequence of a dream, had agreed that the general whose troops first gave way should devote himself to destruction, and so ensure victory. The left wing under Decius became disordered, whereupon, repeating after the chief pontiff the solemn formula of self-devotion he dashed into the ranks of the Latins, and met his death (Livy viii. 9). (2) His son, also called PUBLIUS, consul for the fourth time in 295, followed the example of his father at the battle of Sentinum, when the left wing which he commanded was shaken by the Gauls (Livy x. 28). The story of the elder Decius is regarded by Mommsen as an unhistorical " doublette " of what is related on better authority of the son. MUSAEUS, the name of three Greek poets, (i) The first was a mythical seer and priest, the pupil or son of Orpheus, who was said to have been the founder of priestly poetry in Attica. According to Pausanias (i. 25) he was buried on the Museum hill, south-west of the Acropolis. He composed dedicatory and purificatory hymns and prose treatises, and oracular responses. These were collected and arranged in the time of Peisistratus by Onomacritus, who added interpolations. The mystic and oracular verses and customs of Attica, especially of Eleusis, are connected with his name (Herod, vii. 6; viii. 96; ix. 43). A Titanomachia and Theogonia are also attributed to him (G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenla, 1878). (2) The second was an Ephesian attached to the court of the kings of Pergamum, who wrote a Perseis, and poems on Eumenes and Attalus (Suidas, s.v.). (3) The third (called Grammaticus in all the MSS.) is of uncertain date, but probably belongs to the beginning of the 6th century A.D., as his style and metre are evidently modelled after Nonnus. He must have lived before Agathias (530-582) and is possibly to be identified with the friend of Procopius whose poem (340 hexameter lines) on the story of Hero and Leander is by far the most beautiful of the age (editions by F. Passow, 1810; G. H. Schafer, 1825; C. Dilthey, 1874). The little love-poem Alpheus and Arethusa (Anthol. pal. ix. 362) is also ascribed to Musaeus. MUSA KHEL, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border of the Punjab province of India. They are of Kakar origin, numbering 4670 fighting men. They enter British territory by the Vihowa Pass, and carry on an extensive trade, but are not dependent on India for the necessaries of life. They are a peaceful and united race, and have been friendly to the British, but at enmity with the Khetrans and the Baluch tribes to the south of their country. In 1879 the Musa Khels and other Pathan tribes to the number of 5000 made a demonstration against Vihowa, but the town was reinforced and they dispersed. In 1884 they were punished, together with the Kakars, by the Zhob Valley Expedition. MUSA' US, JOHANN KARL AUGUST (1735-1787), German author, was born on the 29th of March 1735 at Jena, studied theology at the university, and would have become the pastor of a parish but for the resistance of some peasants, who objected that he had been known to dance. In 1760 to 1762 he published in three volumes his first work, Grandison der Zweite, afterwards (in 1781-1782) rewritten and issued with a new title, Der deutsche Grandison. The object of this book was to satirize Samuel Richardson's hero, who had many sentimental admirers in Germany. In 1763 Musaus was made master of the court pages at Weimar, and in 1769 he became professor at the Weimar gymnasium. His second book — Physiognomische Reisen — did not appear until 1778-1779. It was directed against Lavater, and attracted much favourable attention. In 1782 to 1786 he published his best work Volksmiirchen der Deutschen. Even in this series of tales, the substance of which Musaus collected among the people, he could not refrain from satire. The stories, therefore, lack the simplicity of genuine folk-lore. In 1785 was issued Freund Heins Erscheinungen in Holbeins Manier by J. R. Schellenberg, with explanations in prose and verse by Musaus. A collection of stories entitled Straussfedern, of which a volume appeared in 1787, Musaus was prevented from com- pleting by his death on the 28th of October 1787. The Volksmiirchen have been frequently reprinted (Dusseldorf, 1903, &c.). They were translated into French in 1844, and three of the stories are included in Carlyle's German Romance (1827); Musaus's Nachgelassene Scriften were edited by his relative, A. von Kotzebue (1791). See M. Miiller, /. K. A. Musaus (1867), and an essay by A. Stern in Beitrdge zur Literaturgeschichte des 18. Jahr- hunderts (1893). MUSCAT, MUSKAT or MASKAT, a town on the south-east coast of Arabia, capital of the province of Oman. Its value as a naval base is derived from its position, which commands the entrance to the Persian Gulf. The town of Gwadar, the chief port of Makr5n, belongs to Muscat, and by arrangement with the sultan the British occupy that port with a telegraph station of the Indo-Persian telegraph service. An Indian political residency is established at Muscat. In geographical 44 MUSCATINE— MUSCLE AND NERVE position it is isolated from the interior of the continent. The mountains rise behind it in a rugged wall, across which no road exists. It is only from Matrah, a northern suburb shut off by an intervening spur which reaches to the sea, that land com- munication with the rest of Arabia can be maintained. Both Muscat and Matrah are defended from incursions on the land- ward side by a wall with towers at intervals. Muscat rose to importance with the Portuguese occupation of the Persian Gulf, and is noted for the extent of Portuguese ruins about it. Two lofty forts, of which the most easterly is called Jalali and the western Merani, occupy the summits of hills on either side the cove overlooking the town; and beyond them on the seaward side are two smaller defensive works called Sirat. All these are ruinous. A low sandy isthmus connects the rock and fortress of Jalali with the mainland, and upon this isthmus stands the British residency. The sultan's palace is a three-storeyed building near the centre of the town, a relic of Portuguese occupation, called by the Arabs El Jereza, a corruption of Igrezia (church). This term is probably derived from the chapel once attached to the buildings which formed the Portuguese governor's residence and factory. The bazaar is insignificant, and its most considerable trade appears to be in a sweetmeat prepared from the gluten of maize. Large quantities of dates are also exported. History. — The early history of Muscat is the history of Portu- guese ascendancy in the Persian Gulf. When Albuquerque first burnt the place after destroying Karyat in 1508, Kalhat was the chief port of the coast and Muscat was comparatively unimportant. Kalhat was subsequently sacked and burnt, the great Arab mosque being destroyed, before Albuquerque returned to his ships, " giving many thanks to our Lord." From that date, through 114 years of Portuguese ascendancy, Muscat was held as a naval station and factory during a period of local revolts, Arab incursions, and Turkish invasion by sea; but it was not till 1622, when the Portuguese lost Hormuz, that Muscat became the headquarters of their fleet and the most important place held by them on the Arabian coast. In 1650 the Portu- guese were finally expelled from Oman. Muscat had been reduced previously by the humiliating terms imposed upon the garrison by the imam of Oman after a siege in 1648. For five years the Persians occupied Oman, but they disappeared in 1741. Under the great ruler of Oman, Said ibn Sultan (1804- 1856), the fortunes of Muscat attained their zenith; but on his death, when his kingdom was divided and the African possessions were parted from western Arabia, Muscat declined. In 1883- 1884, when Turki was sultan, the town was unsuccessfully besieged by the Indabayin and Rehbayin tribes, led by Abdul Aziz, the brother of Turki. In 1885 Colonel Miles, resident at Muscat, made a tour through Oman, following the footsteps of Wellsted in 1835, and confirmed that traveller's report of the fertility and wealth of the province. In 1898 the French acquired the right to use Muscat as a coaling station. See Stiffe, " Trading Ports of Persian Gulf," vol. ix. Geog. Journal, and the political reports of the Indian government from the Persian Gulf. Colonel Miles's explorations in Oman will be found in vol. vii. Geog. Journal (1896). (T. H. H.*) MUSCATINE, a city and the county-seat of Muscatine county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river (here crossed by a wagon bridge), at the apex of the " great bend," in the south-east part of the state. Pop. (1890), 11,454; (1900), 14,073, of whom 2352 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,178. It is served by the Chicago Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago Rock Island & Pacific, and the Muscatine North & South railways. It is built on high rocky bluffs, and is the centre of a pearl- button industry introduced in 1891 by J. F. Boepple, a German, the buttons being made from the shells of the fresh-water mussel found in the neighbourhood; and there are other manu- factures. Coal is mined in the vicinity, and near the city are large market-gardens, the water-melons growing on Muscatine Island (below the city) and sweet potatoes being their most important products. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Muscatine began as a trading-post in 1833. It was laid out in 1836, incorporated as a town under the name of Bloomington in 1839, and first chartered as a city, under its present name, in 1851. MUSCHELKALK, in geology, the middle member of the German Trias. It consists of a series of calcareous, marly and dolomitic beds which lie conformably between the Bunter and Keuper formations. The name Muschelkalk (Fr., calcaire coquillier; conchylien, formation of D'Orbigny) indicates a characteristic feature in this series, viz. the frequent occurrence of lenticular banks composed of fossil shells, remarkable in the midst of a singularly barren group. In its typical form the Muschelkalk is practically restricted to the German region and its immediate neighbourhood; it is found in Thuringia, Harz, Franconia, Hesse, Swabia. and the Saar and Alsace districts. Northward it extends into Silesia, Poland and Heligo- land. Representatives are found in the Alps, west and south of the Vosges, in Moravia, near Toulon and Montpellier, in Spain and Sardinia; in Rumania, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and beyond this into Asia in the Himalayas, China, Australia, California, and in North Africa (Constantine). From the nature of the deposits, as well as from the impoverished fauna, the Muschelkalk of the type area was probably laid down within a land-locked sea which, in the earlier portion of its existence, had only imperfect communications with the more open waters of the period. The more remote representatives of the formation were of course deposited in diverse conditions, and are only to be correlated through the presence of some of the Muschelkalk fossils. In the " German " area the Muschelkalk is from 250-350 ft. thick; it is readily divisible into three groups, of which the upper and lower are pale thin-bedded limestones with greenish- grey marls, the middle group being mainly composed of gypsiferous and saliniferous marls with dolomite. The Lower Muschelkalk consists, from below upwards, of the following rocks, the ochreous Wellen Dolomit, lower Wellen Kalk, upper Wellen Kalk (so called on account of the wavy character of the bedding) with beds of " Schaumkalk " (a porous cellular lime- stone), and Oolite and the Orbicularis beds (with Myophoria orbicularis) . In the Saar and Alsace districts and north Eifel, these beds take on a sandy aspect, the " Muschelsandstein." The Middle Muschelkalk or Anhydrite group, as already indi- cated, consists mainly of marls and dolomites with beds of anhydrite, gypsum and salt. The salt beds are worked at Hall, Friedrichshall, Heilbronn, Stettin and Erfurt. It is from this division that many of the mineral springs of Thuringia and south Germany obtain their saline contents. The cellular nature of much of the dolomite has given rise to the term " Zellendolomit." The Upper Muschelkalk (Hauptmuschelkalk, Friedrichshallkalk of von Alberti) consists of regular beds of shelly limestone alternating with beds of marl. The lower portion or " Trochitenkalk " is often composed entirely of the fragmentary stems of Encrinus liliiformis; higher up come the " Nodosus " beds with Ceratites compressus, C. nodosus, and C. semipartitus in ascending order. In Swabia and Franconia the highest beds are platy dolomites with Tringonodus Sander- gensis and the crustacean Bairdia. Stylolites are common in all the Muschelkalk limestones. The Alpine Muschelkalk differs in many respects from that of the type area, and shows a closer relationship with the Triassic Mediterranean sea; the more important local phases will be found tabulated in the article TRIAS. In addition to the fossils mentioned above, the following are Muschelkalk forms: Terebratulina vulgaris, Spiriferina Mantzeli and 5. hirsuta, Myophoria vulgaris, Rhynchotites hirundo, Ceratites Miinsteri, Ptychites studeri, Balatonites balatonicus, Aspidura scutel- lata, Daonella Lommeli, and in the Alpine region several rock- forming Algae, Bactryllium, Gyroporella, Diplopora, &c. (J. A. H.) MUSCLE AND NERVE (Physiology).1 Among the properties of living material there is one, widely though not universally present in it, which forms the pre-eminent characteristic of 'The anatomy of the muscles is dealt with under MUSCULAR SYSTEM, and of the nerves under NERVE and NERVOUS SYSTEM. MUSCLE AND NERVE 45 muscular cells. This property is the liberation of some of the energy contained in the chemical compounds of the cells in such a way as to give mechanical work. The mechanical work is obtained by movement resulting from a change, it is supposed, in the elastic tension of the framework of the living cell. In the fibrils existing in the cell a sudden alteration of elasticity occurs, resulting in an increased tension on the points of attachment of the cell to the neighbouring elements of the tissue in which the cell is placed. These yield under the strain, and tne cell shortens between those points of its attachment. This shortening is called contraction. But the volume of the cell is not Mm'™" " appreciably altered, despite the change of its shape, for its one diameter increases in proportion as its other is diminished. The manifestations of contractility by muscle are various in mode. By tonic contraction is meant a prolonged and equable state of tension which yields under analysis no element of intermittent character. This is mani- fested by the muscular walls of the hollow viscera and of the heart, where it is the expression of a continuous liberation of energy in process in the muscular tissue, the outcome of the latter's own intrinsic life, and largely independent of any con- nexion with the nervous system. The muscular wall of the blood-vessels also exhibits tonic contraction, which, however, seems to be mainly traceable to a continual excitation of the muscle cells by nervous influence conveyed to them along their nerves, and originating in the great vaso motor centre in the bulb. In the ordinary striped muscles of the skeletal musculature, e.g. gastrocnemius, tonic contraction obtains; but this, like the last mentioned, is not autochthonous in the muscles themselves; it is indirect and neural, and appears to be maintained reflexly. The receptive organs of the muscular sense and of the semi- circular canals are to be regarded as the sites of origin of this reflex tonus of the skeletal muscles. Striped muscles possessing an autochthonous tonus appear to be the various sphincter muscles. Another mode of manifestation of contractility by muscles is the rhythmic. A tendency to rhythmic contraction seems dis- coverable in almost all muscles. In some it is very marked, for example in some viscera, the spleen, the bladder, the ureter, the uterus, the intestine, and especially in the heart. In several of these it appears not unlikely that the recurrent explosive libera- tions of energy in the muscle tissue are not secondary to recurrent explosions in nerve cells, but are attributable to decompositions arising sua sponte in the chemical substances of the muscle cells themselves in the course of their living. Even small strips of the muscle of the heart, if taken immediately after the death of the animal, continue, when kept moist and warm and supplied with oxygen, to " beat " rhythmically for hours. Rhythmic contraction is also characteristic of certain groups of skeletal muscles, e.g. the respiratory. In these the rhythmic activity is, however, clearly secondary to rhythmic discharges of the nerve cells constituting the respiratory centre in the bulb. Such discharges descend the nerve fibres of the spinal cord, and through 'the intermediation of various spinal nerve cells excite the respiratory muscles through their motor nerves. A form of contraction intermediate in character between the tonic and the rhythmic is met in the auricle of the heart of the toad. There slowly successive phases of increased and of diminished tonus regularly alternate, and upon them are superposed the rhythmic " beats " of the pulsating heart. " The beat," i.e. the short-lasting explosive contraction of the heart muscle, can be elicited by a single, even momentary, application of a stimulus, e.g. by an induction shock. Similarly, such a single stimulus elicits from a skeletal muscle a single " beat," or, as it is termed, a " twitch." In the heart muscle during a brief period after each beat, that is, after each single contraction of the rhythmic series, the muscle becomes inexcitable. It cannot then be excited to contract by any agent, though the inexcitable period is more brief for strong than for weak stimuli. But in the skeletal, voluntary or striped muscles a second stimulus succeeding a previous so Excit- ability. quickly as to fall even during the continuance of the contraction excited by a first, elicits a second contraction. This second contraction starts from whatever phase of previous contraction the muscle may have reached at the time. A third stimulus excites a third additional contraction, a fourth a fourth, and so on. The increments of contraction become, however, less and less, until the succeeding stimuli serve merely to maintain, not to augment, the existing degree of contraction. We arrive thus by synthesis at a summation of " beats " or of simple contrac- tions in the compound, or " tetanic," or summed contraction of the skeletal muscles. The tetanic or summed contractions are more extensive than the simple, both in space and time, and liberate more energy, both as mechanical work and heat. The tension developed by their means in the muscle is many times greater than that developed by a simple twitch. Muscle cells respond by changes in their activity to changes in their environment, and thus are said to be " excitable." They are, however, less excitable than are the nerve cells which innervate them. The change which excites them is termed a stimulus. The least stimulus which suffices to excite is known as the stimulus of threshold value. In the case of the heart muscle this threshold stimulus evokes a beat as extensive as does the strongest stimulus; that is, the intensity of the stimulus, so long as it is above threshold value, is not a function of the amount of the muscular response. But in the ordinary skeletal muscles the amount of the muscular contraction is for a short range of quantities of stimulus (of above threshold value) proportioned to the intensity of the stimulus and increases with it. A value of stimulus, however, is soon reached which evokes a maximal contraction. Further increase of contraction does not follow further increase of the intensity of the stimulus above that point. Just as in a nerve fibre, when excited by a localized stimulus, the excited state spreads from the excited point to the adjacent unexcited ones, so in muscle the " contraction," when excited at a point, spreads to the adjacent uncontracted parts. Both in muscle and in nerve this spread is termed conduction. It is propagated along the muscle fibres of the skeletal muscles at a rate of about 3 metres per second. In the heart muscle it travels much more slowly. The disturbance travels as a wave of contraction, and the whole extent of the wave-like disturbance measures in ordinary muscles much more than the whole length of any single muscle fibre. That the excited state spreads only to previously unexcited portions of the muscle fibre shows that even in the skeletal variety of muscle there exists, though only for a very brief time, a period of inexcitability. The duration of this period is about yj"tr of a second in skeletal muscle. When muscle that has remained inactive for some time is excited by a series of single and equal stimuli succeeding at intervals too prolonged to cause summation the succeeding contractions exhibit progressive increase up to a certain degree. The tenth contraction usually exhibits the culmination of this so-called " staircase effect." The explanation may lie in the production of CO? in the muscle. That substance, in small doses, favours the contractile power of muscle. The muscle is a machine for utilizing the energy contained in its own chemical compounds. It is not surprising that the chemical substances produced in it by the decomposition of its living material should not be of a nature indifferent for muscular life. We find that if the series of excitations of the muscle be prolonged beyond the short stage of initial improvement, the contractions, after being well maintained for a time, later decline in force and speed, and ultimately dwindle even to vanishing point. This decline is said to be due to muscular fatigue. The muscle recovers on being allowed to rest unstimulated for a while, and more quickly on being washed with an innocuous but non- nutritious solution, such as -6%, NaCl in water. The washing seems to remove excreta of the muscle's own production, and the period of repose removes them perhaps by diffusion, perhaps by breaking them down into innocuous material. Since the 46 MUSCLE AND NERVE Neuron Theory. muscle produces lactic acids during activity, it has been sug- gested that acids are among the " fatigue substances " with which muscle poisons itself when deprived of circulating blood. Muscles when active seem to pour into the circulation substances which, of unknown chemical composition, are physiologically recognizable by their stimulant action on the respiratory nervous centre. The effect of the fatigue substances upon the contrac- tion of the tissue is manifest especially in the relaxation process. The contracted state, instead of rapidly subsiding after dis- continuance of the stimulus, slowly and only partially wears off, the muscle remaining in a condition of physiological " contracture." The alkaloid veratrin has a similar effect upon the contraction of muscle; it enormously delays the return from the contracted state, as also does epinephrin, an alkaloid extracted from the suprarenal gland. Nervous System. — The work of Camillo Golgi (Pavia, 1885 and onwards) on the minute structure of the nervous system has led to great alteration of doctrine in neural physi- ology. It had been held that the branches of the nerve cells, that is to say, the fine nerve fibres — since all nerve fibres are nerve cell branches, and all nerve cell branches are nerve fibres — which form a close felt-work in the nervous centres, there combined into a network actually con- tinuous throughout. This continuum was held to render possible conduction in all directions throughout the grey matter of the whole nervous system. The fact that conduction occurred preponderantly in certain directions was explained by appeal to a hypothetical resistance to conduction which, for reasons unascertained, lay less in some directions than in others. The intricate felt-work has by Golgi been ascertained to be a mere interlacement, not an actual anastomosis network; the branches springing from the various cells remain lifelong unattached and unjoined to any other than their own individual cell. Each neuron or nerve cell is a morphologically distinct and discrete unit connected functionally but not structurally with its neigh- bours, and leading its own life independently of the destiny of its neighbours. Among the properties of the neuron is con- ductivity in all directions. But when neurons are linked together it is found that nerve impulses will only pass from neuron A to neuron B, and not from neuron B to neuron A; that is, the transmission of the excited state or nervous impulse, although possible in each neuron both up and down its own cell branches, is possible from one nerve cell to another in one direction only. That direction is the direction in which the nerve impulses flow under the conditions of natural life. The synapse, therefore, as the place of meeting of one neuron with the next is called, is said to valve the nerve circuits. This determinate sense of the spread is called the law of forward direction. The synapse appears to be a weak spot in the chain of conduction, or rather to be a place which breaks down with comparative ease under stress, e.g. under effect of poisons. The axons of the motor neurons are, inasmuch as they are nerve fibres in nerve trunks, easily accessible to artificial stimuli. It can be demonstrated that they are practically indefatigable — repeatedly stimulated by electrical currents, even through many hours, they, unlike muscle, continue to respond with unimpaired reaction. . ^et wnen the muscular contraction is taken as index of the response of the nerve, it is found that unmis- takable signs of fatigue appear even very soon after commence- ment of the excitation of the nerve, and the muscle ceases to give any contraction in response to stimuli applied indirectly to it through its nerve. But the muscle will, when excited directly, e.g. by direct application of electric currents, contract vigorously after all response on its part to the stimuli (nerve impulses) applied to it indirectly through its nerve has failed. The inference is that the "fatigue substances" generated in .the muscle fibres in the course of their prolonged contraction injure and paralyse the motor end plates, which are places of synapsis between nerve cell and muscle cell, even earlier than they harm the contractility of the muscle fibres themselves. The alkaloid • curarin causes motor paralysis by attacking in a selective way this junction of motor nerve cell and striped muscular fibre. Non-myelinate nerve fibres are as resistant to fatigue as are the myelinate. The neuron is described as having a cell body or perikaryon from which the cell branches — dendrites and axon — extend^ and it is this perikaryon which, as its name implies, contains the nucleus. It forms the trophic centre of the cell, just as the nucleus-containing part of every cell is the trophic centre of the whole cell. Any part of the cell cut off from the nucleus-containing part dies down: this is as true of nerve cells as of amoeba, and in regard to the neuron it constitutes what is known as the Wallerian degeneration. On the other hand, in some neurons, after severance of the axon from the rest of the cell (spinal motor cell), the whole nerve cell as well as the severed axon degenerates, and may eventu- ally die and be removed. In the severed axon the degenera- tion is first evident in a breaking down of the naked nerve filaments of the motor end plate. A little later the breaking down of the whole axon, both axis cylinder and myelin sheath alike, seems to occur simultaneously throughout its entire length distal to the place of severance. The complex fat of the myelin becomes altered chemically, while the other com- ponents of the sheath break down. This death of the sheath as well as of the axis cylinder shows that it, like the axis cylinder, is a part of the nerve cell itself. In addition to the trophic influence exerted by each part of the neuron on its other parts, notably by the perikaryon on the cell branches, one neuron also in many instances in- fluences the nutrition of other neurons. When, for instance, the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina are severed by section of the optic nerve, and thus their influence upon the nerve cells of the visual cerebral centres is set aside, the nerve cells of those centres undergo secondary atrophy (Gadden's atrophy). They dwindle in size; they do not, however, die. Similarly, when the axons of the motor spinal cells are by severance of the nerve trunk of a muscle broken through, the muscle cells undergo " degeneration " — dwindle, become fatty, and alter almost beyond recognition. This trophic influence which one neuron exerts upon others, or upon the cells of an extrinsic tissue, such as muscle, is exerted in that direction which is the one normally taken by the T°a!c^ T * . „ . Activity of natural nerve impulses. It seems, especially in ^eurong the case of the nexus between certain neurons, that the influence, loss of which endangers nutrition, is associ- ated with the occurrence of something more than merely the nervous impulses awakened from time to time in the leading nerve cell. The wave of change (nervous impulse) induced in a neuron by advent of a stimulus is after all only a sudden augmentation of an activity continuous within the neuron — a transient accentuation of one (the disintegrative) phase of the metaboh'sm inherent in and inseparable from its life. The nervous impulse is, so to say, the sudden evanescent glow of an ember continuously black-hot. A continuous lesser " change " or stream of changes sets through the neuron, and is distributed by it to other neurons in the same direction and by the same synapses as are its nerve impulses. This gentle continuous activity of the neuron is called its tonus. In tracing the tonus of neurons to a source, one is always led link by link against the current of nerve force — so to say, " up stream " — to the first beginnings of the chain of neurons in the sensifacient surfaces of the body. From these, as in the eye, ear, and other sense organs, tonus is constantly initiated. Hence, when cut off from these sources, the nutrition of the neurons of various central mechanisms suffers. Thus the tonus of the motor neurons of the spinal cord is much lessened by rupture of the great afferent root cells which normally play upon them. A prominent and practically important illustration of neural tonus is given by the skeletal muscles. These muscles exhibit a certain constant condition of slight contraction, which dis- appears on severance of the nerve that innervates the muscle. It is a muscular tonus of central source consequent on the continual glow of excitement in the spinal motor neuron, whose outgoing end plays upon the muscle cells, whose ingoing MUSCLE AND NERVE 47 end is played upon by other neurons — spinal, cerebral and cerebellar. It is with the neural element of muscle tonus that tendon pheno- mena are intimately associated. The earliest-studied of these, the " knee-jerk," may serve as example of the class. It is a brief ex- tension of the limb at the knee-joint, due to a simple contraction of the extensor muscle, elicited by a tap or other short mechanical stimulus applied to the muscle fibres through the tendon of the muscle. The jerk is obtainable only from muscle fibres possessed of neural tonus. If the sensory nerves of the extensor muscle be severed, the "jerk " is lost. The brevity of the interval between the tap on the knee and the beginning of the resultant contraction of the muscle seems such as to exclude the possibility of reflex development. A little experience in observations on the knee-jerk imparts a notion of the average strength of the " jerk." Wide departures from the normal standard are met with and are sympto- matic of certain nervous conditions. Stretching of the muscles antagonistic to the extensors — namely, of the flexor muscles — reduces the jerk by inhibiting the extensor spinal nerve cells through the nervous impulses generated by the tense flexor muscles. Hence a favourable posture of the limb for eliciting the jerk is one ensuring relaxation of the hamstring muscles, as when the leg has been crossed upon the other. In sleep the jerk is diminished, in deep sleep quite abolished. Extreme bodily fatigue diminishes it. Con- versely, a cold bath increases it. The turning of attention towards the knee interferes with the jerk; hence the device of directing the person to perform vigorously some movement, which does not involve the muscles ot the lower limb, at the moment when the light blow is dealt upon the tendon. A slight degree of contraction of muscle seems the substratum of all attention. The direction of attention to the performance of some movement by the arm ensures that looseness and freedom from tension in the thigh muscles which is essential for the provocation of the jerk. The motor cells of the extensor muscles, when preoccupied by cerebral influence, appear refractory. T. Ziehen has noted exaltation of the jerk to follow extirpation of a cortical centre. Although the cell body or perikaryon of the neuron, with its contained nucleus, is essential for the maintenance of the life of the cell branches, it has become recognized Conduction .!_,•,• • , ,. f t, la Neurons. ^"a*- t"e actua' process and function of con- duction " in many neurons can, and does, go on without the cell body being directly concerned in the conduction. S. Exner first showed, many years ago, that the nerve impulse travels through the spinal ganglion at the same speed as along the other parts of the nerve trunk — that is, that it suffers no delay in transit through the perikarya of the afferent root- neurons. Bethe has succeeded in isolating their perikarya from certain of the afferent neurons of the antennule of Carcinus. The conduction through the amputated cell branches continues unimpaired for many hours. This indicates that the conjunction between the conducting substance of the dendrons and that of the axon can be effected without the intermediation of the cell body. But the proper nutntion of the conducting substance is indissolubly dependent on the cell branches being in continuity with the cell body and nucleus it contains. Evidence illustrating this nexus is found in the visible changes produced in the perikaryon by prolonged activity induced and maintained in the conducting branches of the cell. As a result the fatigued cells appear shrunken, and their reaction to staining reagents alters, thus showing chemical alteration. Most marked is the decrease in the volume of the nucleus, amounting even to 44% of the initial volume. In the myelinated cell branches of the neuron, that is, in the ordinary nerve fibres, no visible change has ever been demonstrated as the result of any normal activity, however great — a striking contrast to the observations obtained on the perikarya. The chemical changes that accompany activity in the nerve fibre must be very small, for the production of COj is barely measurable, and no production of heat is observable as the result of the most forced tetanic activity. The nerve cells of the higher vertebrata, unlike their blood cells, their connective tissue cells, and even their muscle cells, Growth la early, and indeed in embryonic life, lose power of Nervous multiplication. The number of them formed is System. definitely closed at an early period of the individual life. Although, unlike so many other cells, thus early sterile for reproduction of their kind, they retain for longer than most cells a high power of individual growth. They continue to grow, and to thrust out new branches and to lengthen existing branches, for many years far into adult life. They similarly possess power to repair and to regenerate their cell branches where these are injured or destroyed by trauma or disease. This is the explana- tion of the repair of nerve trunks that have been severed, with consequent degeneration of the peripheral nerve fibres. As a rule, a longer time is required to restore the motor than the sensory functions of a nerve trunk. Whether examined by functional or by structural features, the conducting paths of the nervous system, traced from beginning to end, never terminate in the centres of that system, but pass through them. All ultimately emerge as efferent channels. Every efferent channel, after entrance in the central nervous system, sub- divides; of its subdivisions some pass to efferent channels soon, others pass further and further within the cord and brain before they finally reach channels of outlet. All the longest routes thus formed traverse late in their course the cortex of the cerebral hemisphere. It is this relatively huge development of cortex cerebri which is the pre-eminent structural character of man. This means that the number of " longest routes " in man is, as compared with lower animals, disproportionately great. In the lower animal forms there is no such nervous structure at all as the cortex cerebri. In the frog, lizard, and even bird, it is thin and poorly developed. In the marsupials it is more evident, and its excitation by electric currents evokes movements in the musculature of the crossed side of the body. Larger and thicker in the rabbit, when excited it gives rise in that animal to movements of the eyes and of the fore-limbs and neck; but it is only in much higher types, such as the dog, that the cortex yields, under experimental excitation, definitely localized foci, whence can be evoked movements of the fore-limb, hind-limb, neck, eyes, ears and fate. In the monkey the proportions it assumes are still greater, and the number of foci, for distinct movements of this and that member, indeed for the individual joints of each limb, are much more numerous, and together occupy a more extensive surface, though relatively to the total surface of the brain a smaller one. Experiment shows that in the manlike (anthropoid) apes the differentiation of the foci or "centres " of movement in the motor field of the cortex is even more minute. In them areas are found whence stimuli excite movements of this or that finger alone, of the upper lip without the lower, of the tip only of the tongue, or of one upper eyelid by itself. The movement evoked from a point of cortex is not always the same; its character is determined by movements evoked from neighbouring points of cortex immediately antecedently. Thus a point A will, when excited soon subsequent to point B, which latter yields pro- trusion of lips, itself yield lip-protrusion, whereas if excited after C, which yields lip-retraction, it will itself yield lip-retrac- tion. The movements obtained by point-to-point excitation of the cortex are often evidently imperfect as compared with natural movements — that is, are only portions of complete normal movements. Thus among the tongue movements evoked by stigmatic stimulation of the cortex undeviated protrusion or retraction of the organ is not found. Again, from different points of the cortex the assumption of the requisite positions of the tongue, lips, cheeks, palate and epiglottis, as components in the act of sucking, can be pro- voked singly. Rarely can the whole action be provoked, and then only gradually, by prolonged and strong excitation of one of the requisite points, e.g. that for the tongue, with which the other points are functionally connected. Again, no single point in the cortex evokes the act of ocular converg- ence and fixation. All this means that the execution of natural movements employs simultaneous co-operative activity of a number of points in the motor fields on both sides of the brain together. The accompanying simple figure indicates better than any verbal description the topography of the main groups of foci in the motor field of a manlike ape (chimpanzee). It will be MUSCLE AND NERVE noted from it that there is no direct relation between the extent of a cortical area and the mass of muscles which it controls. The mass of muscles in the trunk is greater than in the leg, and in the leg is greater than in the arm, and in the arm is many times greater than in the face and head; yet for the last the cortical area is the most extensive of all, and for the first-named is the least extensive of all. The motor field of the cortex is, taken altogether, relatively to the size of the lower parts of the brain, larger in the anthropoid than in the inferior monkey brains. But in the anthropoid Anus jat the supporting cells expand between the nerve cells and tend to isolate the latter one from the other. Certain it is that in the course of the waking day a great number of stimuli play on the sense organs, and through these produce disintegra- tion of the living molecules of the central nervous system. Hence during the day the assimilatory processes of these cells are overbalanced by their wear and tear, and the end-result is that the cell attains an atomic condition less favourable to further disintegration than to reintegration. That phase of cell life which we are accustomed to call " active " is accompanied always by disintegration. When in the cell the assimilative processes exceed dissimilative, the external manifestations of energy are liable to cease or diminish. Sleep is not exhaustion of the neuron in the sense that prolonged activity has reduced its excitability to zero. The nerve cell just prior to sleep is still well capable of response to stimuli, although perhaps the thres- hold-value of the stimulus has become rather high, whereas after entrance upon sleep and continuance of sleep for several hours, and more, when all spur to the dissimilation process has been long withheld, the threshold-value of the sensory stimulus becomes enormously higher than before. The exciting cause of sleep is therefore no complete exhaustion of the available material of the cells, nor is it entirely any paralysing of them by their excreta. It is more probably abeyance of external function during a periodic internal assimilatory phase. Two processes conjoin to initiate the assimilatory phase. There is close interconnexion between the two aspects of the double activity that in physiological theory constitute the chemical life of protoplasm, between dissimilation and assimilation. Hering has long insisted on a self-regulative adjustment of the cell metabolism, so that action involves reaction, increased catabolism necessitates after-increase of anabolism. The long-continued incitement to catabolism of the waking day thus of itself predisposes the nerve cells towards rebound into the opposite phase; the increased cata- bolism due to the day's stimuli induces increase of anabolism, and though recuperation goes on to a large extent during the day itself, the recuperative process is slower than, and lags behind, the dis- integrative. Hence there occurs a cumulative effect, progressively increasing from the opening till the closing hours. The second factor inducing tiie assimilative change is the withdrawal of the nervous system from sensual stimulation. The eyes are closed, the maintenance.of posture by active contraction is replaced by the recumbent pose which can be maintained by static action and the mere mechanical consistence of the body, the ears are screened from noise in the quiet chamber, the skin from localized pressure by a soft, yielding couch. The effect of thus reducing the excitant action of the environment is to give consciousness over more to mere revivals by memory, and gradually consciousness lapses. A remarkable case is well authenticated, where, owing to disease, a young man had lost the use of all the senses save of one eye and of one ear. If these last channels were sealed, in two or three minutes' time he invariably fell asleep. If natural sleep is the expression of a phase of decreased excit- ability due to the setting in of a tide of anabolism in the cells of the nervous system, what is the action of narcotics ? They lower the MUSCOVITE external activities of the cells, but do they not at the same time lower the internal, reparative, assimilative activity of the cell that in natural sleep goes vigorously forward preparing the system for the next day's drain on energy? In most cases they seem to Narcotics. lower both the internal and the external activity of the nerve cells, to lessen the cell's entire metabolism, to reduce the speed of its whole chemical movement and life. Hence it is not surprising that often the refreshment, the recuperation, obtained from and felt after sleep induced by a drug amounts to nothing, or to worse than nothing. But very often refreshment is undoubtedly obtained from such narcotic sleep. It may be supposed that in the latter case the effect of the drug has been to ensure occurrence of that second predisposing factor mentioned above, of that withdrawal of sense impulses from the nerve centres that serves to usher in the state of sleep. In certain conditions it may be well worth while by means of narcotic drugs to close the portals of the senses for the sake of thus obtaining stillness in the chambers of the mind; their enforced quietude may induce a period in which natural rest and repair continue long after the initial unnatural arrest of vitality due to the drug itself has passed away. Hypnotism. — The physiology of this group of " states " is, as regards the real understanding of their production, eminently vague (see also HYPNOTISM). The conditions which tend to in- duce them contain generally, as one element, constrained visual attention prolonged beyond ordinary duration. Symptoms attendant on the hypnotic state are closure of tht e eyelids by the hypnotizer without subsequent attempt to open them by the hypnotized subject; the pupils, instead of being constricted, as for near vision, dilate, and there sets in a condition superficially resembling sleep. But in natural sleep the action of all parts of the nervous system is subdued, whereas in the hypnotic the reactions of the lower, and some even of the higher, parts are exalted. Moreover, the reactions seem to follow the sense impressions with such fatality, that, as an inference, absence of will-power to control them or suppress them is suggested. This reflex activity with " paralysis of will " is characteristic of the somnambulistic state. The threshold-value of the stimuli adequate for the various senses may be extraordinarily lowered. Print of microscopic size may be read; a watch ticking in another room can be heard. Judgment of weight and texture of surface is exalted; thus a card can in a dark room be felt and then re-selected from the re-shuffled pack. Akin to this condition is that in which the power of maintaining muscular effort is in- creased; the individual may lie stiff with merely head and feet supported on two chairs; the limbs can be held outstretched for hours at a time. This is the cataleptic state, the phase of hypno- tism which the phenomena of so-called " animal hypnotism " resemble most. A frog or fowl or guinea-pig held in some unnatural pose, and retained so forcibly for a time, becomes " set " in that pose, or rather in a posture of partial recovery of the normal posture. In this state it remains motionless for various periods. This condition is more than usually readily induced when the cerebral hemispheres have been removed. The decerebrate monkey exhibits " cataleptoid " reflexes. Father A. Kircher's experimentum mirabile with the fowl and the chalk line succeeds best with the decerebrate hen. The ^attitude may be described as due to prolonged, not very intense, .discharge from reflex centres that regulate posture and are iprobably intimately connected with the cerebellum. A sudden iintense sense stimulus usually suffices to end this tonic discharge. It completes the movement that has already set in but had been .checked, as it were, half-way, though tonically maintained. Coincidently with the persistence of the tonic contraction, the higher and volitional centres seem to lie under a spell of inhibition; their action, which would complete or cut short the posture-spasm, rests in abeyance. Suspension of cerebral influence exists even more markedly, of course, when the .cerebral hemispheres have been ablated. But a potent — according to some, the most potent — factor ;in hypnotism, namely, suggestion, is unrepresented in the production of so-called animal hypnotism. We know that one idea suggests another, and that volitional movements are the outcome of ideation. If we assume that there is a material process at the basis of ideation, we may take the analogy of the concomitance between a spinal reflex movement and a skin sensation. The physical " touch " that initiates the psychical " touch " initiates, through the very same nerve channels, a reflex movement responsive to the physical "• touch," just as the psychical " touch " may be considered also a response to the same physical event. But in the decapitated animal we have good arguments for belief that we get the reflex movement alone as response; the psychical touch drops out. Could we assume that there is in the adult man reflex machinery which is of higher order than the merely spinal, which employs much more complex motor mechanisms than1 they, and is connected with a much wider range of sense organs; and could we assume that- this reflex machinery, although usually associated in its action with memorial and volitional processes, may in certain circumstances be sundered from these latter and unattendant on them — may in fact continue in work when the higher processes are at a standstill — then we might imagine a condition resembling that of the somnambulistic and cataleptic states of hypnotism. Such assumptions are not wholly unjustified. Actions of great complexity and delicacy of adjustment are daily executed by each of us without what is ordinarily understood as volition, and without more than a mere shred of memory attached thereto. To take one's watch from the pocket and look at it when from a familiar clock-tower a familiar bell strikes a familiar hour, is an instance of a habitual action initiated by a sense perception outside attentive consciousness. We may suddenly remember dimly afterwards that we have done so, and we quite fail to recall the difference between the watch time and the clock time. In many instances hypnotism seems to establish quickly reactions similar to such as usually result only from long and closely attentive practice. The sleeping mother rests undisturbed by the various noises of the house and street, but wakes at a slight murmur from her child. The ship's engineer, engaged in conversation with some visitor to the engine- room, talks apparently undisturbed by all the multifold noise and rattle of the machinery, but let the noise alter in some item which, though unnoticeable to the visitor, betokens importance to the trained ear, and his passive attention is in a moment caught. The warders at an asylum have been hypnotized to sleep by the bedside of dangerous patients, and " suggested " to awake the instant the patients attempt to get out of bed, sounds which had no import for them being inhibited by suggestion. Warders in this way worked all day and performed night duty also for months without showing fatigue. This is akin to the " repetition " which, read by the schoolboy last thing overnight, is on waking " known by heart." Most of us can wake somewhere about a desired although unusually early hour, if overnight we desire much to do so. Two theories of a physiological nature have been proposed to account for the separation of the complex reactions of these conditions of hypnotism from volition and from memory. R. P. H. Heidenhain's view is that the cortical centres of the hemisphere are inhibited by peculiar conditions attaching to the initiatory sense stimuli. W. T. Preyer's view is that the essential condition for initiation is fatigue of the will-power under a prolonged effort of undivided attention. Hypnotic somnambulism and hypnotic catalepsy are not {he only or the most profound changes of nervous condition that hypnosis can induce. The physiological derangement which is the basis of the abeyance of volition may, if hypnotism be profound, pass into more widespread derangement, exhibiting itself as the hypnotic lethargy. This is associated not only with paralysis of will but with profound anaesthesia. Proposals have been made to employ hypnotism as a method of producing anaesthesia for surgical purposes, but there are two grave objections to such employment. In order to produce a sufficient degree of hypnotic lethargy the subject must be made extremely susceptible, and this can only be done by repeated hypnotization. It is necessary to hypnotize patients every day for several weeks before they can be got into a degree of stupor sufficient to allow of the safe execution of a surgical operation. But the state itself, when reached, is at least as dangerous to life as is that produced by inhalation of ether, and it is more difficult to recover from. Moreover, by the processes the subject has gone through he has had those physiological activities upon which his volitional power depends excessively deranged, and not improbably permanently enfeebled. (C. S. S.) MUSCOVITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica group (see MICA). It is also known as potash-mica, being a potassium, hydrogen and'aluminium orthosilicate, MUSCULAR SYSTEM As the common white mica obtainable in thin, transparent cleavage sheets of large size it was formerly used in Russia for window panes and known as " Muscovy glass "; hence the name muscovite, proposed by J. D. Dana in 1850. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system; distinctly developed crystals, however, are rare and have the form of rough six-sided prisms or plates: thin scales without definite crystal outlines are more common. The most prominent feature is the perfect cleavage parallel to t^e basal plane (c in the figure), on which the lustre is pearly in character. jit "7 The hardness is 2-2 1, and the spec, grav. 2-8-2-9. The plane of the optic axes is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry and the acute bisectrix nearly normal to the cleavage; the optic axial angle is 60-70°, and double refraction is strong and negative in sign. Muscovite frequently occurs as fine scaly to almost compact aggregates, especially when, as is often the case, it has resulted by the alteration of some other mineral, such as felspar, topaz, cyanite, &c.j several varieties depending on differences in structure have been distinguished. Fine scaly varieties are damourite, margarodite (from Gr. jia/xyapt-njj, a pearl), gilber- tite, sericite (from or /3) and the double sharp X (sometimes written ^, ^ or :$ ) are Conventions of a much later date, called into existence by the demands of modern music, while the sign of natural (t|) is the outcome of the original B quadra- tion or square B (3. The systems known as Tonic Sol Fa and the Galin-Paris- Cheve methods do not belong to the subject of notation, as they are ingenious mechanical substitutes for the experimentally devel- oped systems analysed above. The basis of these substitutes is the reference of all notes to key relationship and not to pitch. AUTHORITIES. — E. David and M. Lussy, Hisioire de la notation musicale (Paris, 1882); H. Riemann, Notenschrift und Notendruck (1896) ; C. F. Abdy Williams, The Story of Notation (1903) ; Robert Eitner, Bibliographic der musik. Sammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahr- hunderts (Berlin, 1877) ; Friedrich Chrysander, " Abriss einer Geschichte des Musikdrucks vom I5--I9. Jahrh.," Allgemeine musik- alische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1879, Nos. n-i6); W. H. James Weale, A Descriptive Catalogue of Rare Manuscripts and Printed Works, chiefly Liturgical (Historical Music Loan Exhibition, Albert Hall, London, January-October, 1885); (London, 1886); W. Barclay Squire, " Notes on Early Music Printing," in the Zeitschrift biblio- graphica, p. IX. S. 99-122 (London, 1896); Grove's Diet, of Music. MUSIC HALLS. The "variety theatre" or "music-hall" of to-day developed out of the " saloon theatres " which existed in London about 1830-1840; they owed their form and existence to the restrictive action of the " patent " theatres at that time. These theatres had the exclusive right of representing what was broadly called the "legitimate drama," which ranged from Shakespeare to Monk Lewis, and from Sheridan and Goldsmith to Kotzebue and Alderman Birch of Cornhill, citizen and poet, and the founder of the turtle-soup trade. The patent houses defended their rights when they were attacked by the " minor " and " saloon " theatres, but they often acted in the spirit of the dog in the manger. While they pursued up to fine and even imprisonment the poachers on their dramatic preserves, they too often neglected the " legitimate drama " for the supposed meretricious attractions offered by their illegitimate competitors. The British theatre gravitated naturally to the inn or tavern. The tavern was the source of life and heat, and warmed all social gatherings. The inn galleries offered rather rough stages, before the Shakespeare and Alleyn playhouses were built. The inn yards were often made as comfortable as possible for the " groundlings " by layers of straw, but the tavern character of the auditorium was never concealed. Excisable liquor was always obtainable, and the superior members of the audience, who chose to pay for seats at the side of the stage or platform (like the " avant-scene " boxes at a Parisian theatre), were allowed to smoke Raleigh's Virginian weed, then a novel luxury. This was, of course, the first germ of a " smoking- theatre." While the drama progressed as a recognized public entertain- ment in England, and was provided with its own buildings in the town, or certain booths at the fairs, the Crown exercised its patronage in favour of certain individuals, giving them power to set up playhouses at any time in any parts of London and Westminster. The first and most important grant was made by Charles II. to his " trusty and well-beloved " Thomas Killigrew " and Sir William Davenant." This was a personal grant, not connected with any particular sites or buildings, and is known in theatrical history as the " Killigrew and Davenant patent." Killigrew was the author of several unsuccessful plays, and Sir William Davenant, said to be an illegitimate chUd of William Shakespeare, was a stage manager of great daring and genius. Charles II. had strong theatrical leanings, and had helped to arrange the court ballets at Versailles for Louis XIV. The Killigrew and Davenant patent in course of time descended, after a fashion, to the Theatres Royal, Covent Garden and Drury Lane, and was and still is the chief legal authority governing these theatres. The " minor " and outlying playhouses were carried on under the Music and Dancing Act of George II., and the annual licences were granted by the local magistrates. The theatre proper having emancipated itself from the inn or tavern, it was now the turn of the inn or tavern to develop into an independent place of amusement, and to lay the foundation of that enormous middle-class and lower middle-class institution of interest which we agree to term the music hall. It rose from the most modest, humble and obscure beginning — from the public-house bar-parlour, and its weekly " sing-songs," chiefly supported by voluntary talent from the "harmonic meetings" of the " long-room " upstairs, generally used as a Foresters' or Masonic club-room, where one or two professional singers were engaged and a regular chairman was appointed, to the " assem- bly-room " entertainments at certain hotels, where private balls and school festivals formed part of an irregular series. The district " tea-garden," which was then an agreeable feature of suburban life — the suburbs being next door to the city and the country next door to the suburbs — was the first to show dramatic 88 MUSIC HALLS ambition, and to erect in some portion of its limited but leafy grounds a lath-and-plaster stage large enough for about eight people to move upon without incurring the danger of falling off into the adjoining fish pond and fountain. A few classical statues in plaster, always slightly mutilated, gave an educational tone to the place, and with a few coloured oil-lamps hung amongst the bushes the proprietor felt he had gone as near the " Royal Vauxhall Gardens '' as possible for the small charge of a sixpenny refreshment ticket. There were degrees of quality, of course, amongst these places, which answered to the German beer- gardens, though with inferior music. The Beulah Spa at Norwood, the White Conduit House at Pentonville, the York- shire Stingo in the Marylebone Road, the Monster at Pimlico, the St Helena at Rotherhithe, the Globe at Mile End, the Red Cow at Dalston, the Highbury Barn at Highbury, the Manor House at Mare Street, Hackney, the Rosemary Branch at Hoxton, and other rus-in-urbe retreats, were up to the level of their time, if rarely beyond it. The suspended animation of the law — the one Georgian act, which was mainly passed to check the singing of Jacobite songs in the tap-rooms and tea-gardens of the little London of 1730, when the whole population of the United Kingdom was only about six millions — encouraged the growth eventually of a number of " saloon theatres " in various London districts, which were allowed under the head of "Music and Dancing" to go as far on the light dramatic road as the patent theatres thought proper to permit. The 25 Geo. II. c. 36, which in later days was still the only act under which the music halls of forty millions and more of people were licensed, was always liberally interpreted, as long as it kept clear of politics. The " saloon theatres," always being taverns or attached to taverns, created a public who liked to mix its dramatic amuse- ments with smoking and light refreshments. The principal " saloons " were the Emngham in the Whitechapel Road, the Bower in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, the Albert at Islington, the Britannia at Hoxton, the Grecian in the City Road, the Union in Shoreditch, the Stingo at Paddington and several others of less importance. All these places had good com- panies, especially in the winter, and many of' them nourished leading actors of exceptional merit. The dramas were chiefly rough adaptations from the contemporary French stage, occasionally flying as high as Alexandre Dumas the elder and Victor Hugo. Actors of real tragic power lived, worked and died in this confined area. Some went to America, and acquired fame and fortune; and among others, Frederick Robson, who was trained at the Grecian, first when it was the leading saloon theatre and afterwards when it became the leading music hall (a distinction with little difference), fought his way to the front after the abolition of the " patent rights " and was accepted as the greatest tragi-comic actor of his time. The Grecian saloon theatre, better known perhaps, with its pleasure garden or yard, as the Eagle Tavern, City Road, which formed the material of one of Charles Dickens's Sketches by Boz, was a place managed with much taste, enterprise and discretion by its pro- prietor, Mr Rouse. It was the " saloon " where the one and only attempt, with limited means, was ever made to import almost all the original repertory of the Opera Comique in Paris, with the result that many musical works were presented to a sixpenny audience that had never been heard before nor since in England. Auber, Herold, Adolphe Adam, Boieldieu, Gretry, Donizetti, Bellini, Rossini and a host of others gave some sort of advanced musical education, through the Grecian, to a rather depressing part of London, long before board schools were established. The saloon theatres rarely offended the patent houses, and when they did the law was soon put in motion to show that Shake- speare could not be represented with impunity. The Union Saloon in Shoreditch, then under the direction of Mr Samuel Lane, who afterwards, with his wife, Mrs Sara Lane, at the Britannia Saloon, became the leading local theatrical manager of his day, was tempted in 1834 to give a performance of Othello. It was " raided " by the then rather " new police," and all the actors, servants, audience, directors and musicians were taken into custody and marched off to Worship Street police station, confined for the remainder of the night, and fined and warned in the morning. The same and only law still exists for those who are helping to keep a " disorderly house," but there are no holders of exclusive dramatic patent rights to set it in motion. The abolition of this privileged monopoly was effected about this time by a combination of distinguished literary men and drama- tists, who were convinced, from observation and experience, that the patent theatres had failed to nurse the higher drama, while interfering with the beneficial freedom of public amusements. The effect of Covent Garden and Drury Lane on the art of acting had resulted chiefly in limiting the market for theatrical employment, with a consequent all-round reduction of salaries. They kept the Lyceum Theatre (or English Opera House) for years in the position of a music hall, giving sometimes two performances a night, like a " gaff " in the New Cut or White- chapel. They had not destroyed the " star " system, and Edmund Kean and the boy Betty — the " Infant Roscius " — were able to command sensational rewards. In the end Charles Dickens, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd and others got the patents abolished, and the first step towards free trade in the drama was secured. The effect of this change was to draw attention to the " saloon theatres," where during the performances smoking, drinking, and even eating were allowed hi the auditorium. An act was soon passed, known as the Theatres Act (1843), appointing a censor of stage-plays, and placing the London theatres under the control of a Crown officer, changing with ministries. This was the lord chamberlain for the time being. The lord chamber- lain of this period drew a hard-and-fast line between theatres under his control, where no smoking and drinking were allowed " in front," and theatres or halls where the old habits and customs of the audience were not to be interfered with. These latter were to go under the jurisdiction of the local magistrates, or other licensing authorities, under the 25 Geo. II. c. 36 — the Music and Dancing Act — and so far a divorce was decreed between the taverns and the playhouses. The lord chamberlain eventually made certain concessions. Refreshment bars were allowed at the lord chamberlain's theatres in unobstrusive positions, victualled under a special act of William IV., and private smoking-rooms were allowed at most theatres on appli- cation. All this implied that stage plays were to be kept free from open smoking and drinking, and miscellaneous entertain- ments were to enjoy their old social freedom. The position was accepted by those " saloon theatres " which were not tempted to become lord chamberlain houses, and the others, with many additions, started the first music halls. Amongst the first of these halls, and certainly the very first as far as intelligent management was concerned, was the Can- terbury in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, which was next door to the old Bower Saloon, then transformed into a " minor theatre." The Canterbury sprang from the usual tavern germ, its creator being Mr Charles Morton, who honourably earned the name of the " doyen of the music halls." It justified its title by cultivating the best class of music, and exposed the prejudice and unfairness of Planche's sarcasm in a Haymarket burlesque — " most music hall — most melancholy." Mr Charles Morton added pictorial art to his other attractions, and obtained the support of Punch, which stamped the Canterbury as the " Royal Academy over the water." At this time by a mere accident Gounod's great opera of Faust, through defective inter- national registration, fell into the public domain in England and became common property. The Canterbury, not daring to present it with scenery, costumes and action, for fear of the Stage-play Act, gave what was called " An Operatic Selection," the singers standing in plain dresses in a row, like pupils at a school examination or a chorus in an oratorio at Exeter Hall. The music was well rendered by a thoroughly competent com- pany, night after night, for a long period, so that by the time the opera attracted the tardy attention of the two principal opera managers at Her Majesty's Theatre in the Haymarket and Covent Garden Theatre, the tunes most popular were being' MUSIC HALLS 89 whistled by the " man in the street," the " boy in the gutter " and the tradesman waiting at the door for orders. With the Canterbury Hall, and its brother the Oxford in Oxford Street — a converted inn and coaching yard — built and managed on the same lines by Mr Charles Morton, the music halls were well started. They had imitators in every direction — some large, some small, and some with architectural pretensions, but all anxious to attract the public by cheap prices and physical comforts not attainable at any of the regular theatres. With the growth and improvement of these " Halls," the few old cellar " singing-rooms " gradually disappeared. Evans's in Covent Garden was the last to go. Rhodes's, or the Cyder Cellars in Maiden Lane, at the back of the Adelphi Theatre; the Coal Hole, in the Strand, which now forms the site of Terry's Theatre; the Doctor Johnson, in Fleet Street (oddly enough, within the precincts of the City of London) disappeared one by one, and with them the compound material for Thackeray's picture of " The Cave of Harmony." This " Cave," like Dickens's " Old Curiosity Shop," was drawn from the features of many places. To do the " cellars " a little justice, they represented the manners of a past time — heavy suppers and heavy drinks, and the freedom of their songs and recitations was partly due to the fact that the audience and the actors were always composed of men. Thackeray clung to Evans's to the last. It was his nightly " chapel of ease " to the adjoining Garrick Club. In its old age it became decent, and ladies were admitted to a private gallery, behind screens and a convent grille. Before its death, and its revival in another form as a sporting club, it admitted ladies both on and off the stage, and became an ordinary music hall. The rise and progress of the London music halls naturally excited a good deal of attention and jealousy on the part of the regular theatres, and this was increased when the first Great Variety Theatre was opened in Leicester Square. The building was the finest example of Moorish architec- ture on a large scale ever erected in England. It was burnt down in the 'eighties, and the present theatre was built in its place. Originally it was " The Panopticon," a palace of " recreative science," started under the most distinguished direction on the old polytechnic institution lines, and with ample capital. It was a commercial failure, and after being tried as an " American Circus," it was turned into a great variety theatre, the greatest of its kind in Europe, under the name of the Alhambra Palace. Its founder was Mr E.T. Smith, the energetic theatrical manager, and its developer was Mr Frederick Strange, who came full of spirit and money from the Crystal Palace. He produced in 1865 an ambitious ballet — the Dagger Ballet from Auber's Enfant prodigue, which had been seen at Drury Lane Theatre in 1851, translated as " Azae'l." The Alhambra was prosecuted in the superior courts for infringing the Stage-play Act — the 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68. The case is in the law reports — Wigan v. Strange; the ostensible plaintiffs being the well-known actors and managers Horace Wigan and Benjamin Webster, supported by J. B. Buckstone, and many other theatrical managers. A long trial before eminent judges, with eminent counsel on both sides, produced a decision which was not very satisfactory, and far from final. It held that, as far as the entertainment went, according to the evidence tendered, it was not a ballet representing any distinct story or coherent action, but it might have been a " divertissement " — a term suggested in the course of the trial. A short time after this a pantomime scene was pro- duced at the same theatre, called Where's the Police? which had a clown, a pantaloon, a columbine and a harlequin, with other familiar characters, a mob, a street and even the traditional red-hot poker. This inspired proceedings by the same plaintiffs before a police magistrate at Marlborough Street, who inflicted the full penalties — £20 a performance for 12 performances, and costs. An appeal was made to the West- minster quarter sessions, supported by Serjeant Ballantine and opposed by Mr Hardinge Giffard (afterwards Lord Chan- cellor Halsbury), and the conviction was confirmed. Being heard at quarter sessions, there is no record in the law reports. These and other prosecutions suggested the institution of a parliamentary inquiry, and a House of Commons select committee was appointed in 1866, at the instigation of the music halls and variety theatres. The committee devoted much time to the inquiry, and examined many witnesses — amongst the rest Lord Sydney, the lord chamberlain, who had no personal objection to undertake the control of these comparatively young places of amusement and recreation. Much of the evidence was directed against the Stage-play Act, as the difficulty appeared to be to define what was not a stage play. Lord Denman, Mr Justice Byles, and other eminent judges seemed to think that any song, action or recitation that excited the emotions might be pinned as a stage-play, and that the old definition — " the representation of any action by a person (or persons) acting, and not in the form of narration " — could be supported in the then state of the law in any of the higher courts. The variety theatres on this occasion were encouraged by what had just occurred at the time in France. Napoleon III., acting under the advice of M. Miche! Chevalier, passed a decree known as La LibertS des IheStres, which fixed the status of the Parisian and other music halls. Operettas, ballets of action, ballets, vaudevilles, pantomimes and all light pieces were allowed, and the managers were no longer legally confined to songs and acrobatic performances. The report of the select committee of 1866, signed by the chairman, Mr (afterwards Viscount) Goschen, was in favour of granting the variety theatres and music halls the privileges they asked for, which were those enjoyed in France and other countries. Parliamentary interference and the introduction of several private bills in the House of Commons, which came to nothing, checked, if they did not altogether stop, the prosecutions. The variety theatres advanced in every direction in number and im- portance. Ballets grew in splendour and coherency. The lighting and ventilation, the comfort and decoration of the various " palaces " (as many of them were now called) improved, and the public, as usual, were the gainers. Population in- creased, and the six millions of 1730 became forty millions and more. The same and only act (25 Geo. II. c. 36), adequate or inadequate, still remained. London is defined as' the " administrative county of London," and its area — the zo-miles radius — is mapped out. The Metropolitan Board of Works retired or was discharged, and the London County Council was created and has taken its place. The London County Council, with extended power over structures and structural alterations, acquired the licensing of variety theatres and music halls from the local magistrates (the Middlesex, Surrey, Tower Hamlets and other magistrates) within the administrative county of London. The L. C. C. examine and enforce their powers. They have been advised that they can separate a music from a dancing licence if they like, and that when they grant the united licence the dancing means the dancing of paid performers on a stage, and not the dancing of the audience on a platform or floor, as at the short- lived but elegant Cremorne Gardens, or an old-time " Casino." They are also advised that they can withhold licences, unless the applicants agree not to apply for a drink licence to the local magistrates sitting in brewster sessions, who still retain their control over the liquor trade. Theatre licences are often with- held unless a similar promise is made — the drink authority in this case being the Excise, empowered by the Act of William IV. (5&6 Will. IV. c. 39, s. 7). The spread of so-called " sketches " — a kind of condensed drama or farce — in the variety theatres, and the action of the London County Council in trying to check the extension of refreshment licences to these establishments, with other grounds of discontent on the part of managers (individuals or " limited companies "), led to the appointment of a second select com- mittee of the House of Commons in 1892 and the production of another blue-book. The same ground was gone over, and the same objections were raised against a licensing authority 9o MUSK— MUSKEGON which is elected by public votes, only exists for three years before another election is due, and can give no guarantee for the continuity of its judgments. The consensus of opinion (as in 1866) was in favour of a state official, responsible to parliament — like the Home Office or the Board of Trade — the preference being given to the lord chamberlain and his staff, who know much about theatres and theatrical business. The chairman of the committee was the Hon. David Plunkett (after- wards Lord Rathmore), and the report in spirit was the same as the one of 1866. Three forms of licence were suggested: one for theatres proper, one for music halls, and one for concert rooms. Though the rise and progress of the music hall and variety theatre interest is one of the most extraordinary facts of the last half of the igth century, the business has little or no corporate organization, and there is nothing like a complete registration of the various properties throughout the United Kingdom. In London the " London Entertainments Pro- tection Association," which has the command of a weekly paper called the Music Hall and Theatre Review, looks after its interests. In London alone over five millions sterling of capital is said to be invested in these enterprises, employing 80,000 persons of all grades, and entertaining during the year about 25,000,000 people. The annual applications for music licences in London alone are over 300. (J. HD.) HUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. tiba\ KNOj, CA (NOs)j, a free acid, and 5% of dextrine. * If the plasmodium is slowly dried it is very apt to pass into sporangia. io8 MYCETOZOA similar material occurs along branching and anastomosing tracts through the protoplasm of the sporangium, giving rise to the capilhtium. The greater part of the lime granules pass out of the protoplasm and are deposited in the capilhtium, which in the ripe sporangia of Badhamia is white and brittle with the contained lime (cf. fig. 8). In this genus some granules are found also in the sporangium-wall. Strasburger concludes that the sporangium-wall of Trichia is a modification of cellulose (29). FIG. 8. — Sporangia of Badhamia panicea, some intact, others (to left) ruptured, exposing the black masses of spores and the capillitium. The latter is white with deposited lime granules. An empty sporangium is seen above (X 30). It has been stated (16), but the observation requires confirmation, that a fusion of the nuclei in pairs occurs early in the development of the sporangium. FIG. 9. — Part of a section through a young Sporangium of Trichivaria, showing the mitotic division of the nuclei (n) prior to spore formation. c, Capillitium thread (X 650). At a later stage, after the capillitium is formed, the nuclei undergo a mitotic division which affects all the nuclei of a sporangium simul- taneously. This was first described by Strasburger (29). While it FIG. 10. — Part of a section through a Sporangium of Trichia varia after the spores are formed (X 650). FIG. 12. — Physarum nutans. a. Sporangia (X 9). • b, Capillitium threads, with frag- ment of the sporangium-wall attached, lime knots at the junctions and spores (X no). is in progress the protoplasm of the sporangium divides., into succes- sively smaller masses, until each daughter nucleus is the centre of a single mass of protoplasm.1 These nucleated masses are the young FIG. n. — Badhamia utricularis. a, Sporangia (X 3i). b, Capillitium and cluster of spores (X 140). 1 In some genera such as Arcyria and Trichia (illustrated in figs. 9 and 10) the division of the protoplasm does not occur until the nuclei have undergone this division. The protoplasm then divides up about the daughter nuclei to form the spores. spores. A spore-wall is soon secreted and the sporangium has now resolved itself into a mass of spores, traversed by the strands of the capillitium and enclosed in a sporangium-wall, connected with the substratum by a stalk. As ripening proceeds, the wall becomes membranous and readily ruptures, and the dry spores may be carried abroad on the currents of air or washed out by rain. FIG. 13. — Chondrioderma ceum. a, GroupofthreeSporangia(X9). b, Capillitium, fragment of spor- angium-wall and spores (X 170). testa- FIG. 14. — Cralerium peduncula- turn. a, Two Sporangia, in one the lid has fallen away (X 10). b, Capillitium with lime knots and spores (X no). We may now review some of the main differences in structure presented by the sporangia. They may be stalked or sessile (fig. 13). If the former, the stalk is usually, as in Badhamia utricularis, FIG. 15. — Didymium effusum. a. Two Sporangia, one showing the columella and capillitium (X 12). b, Capillitium, fragment of spor- angium-wall with carbonate (x'isop)!1 "^ the continuation of the sporangium-walls (figs, n and 12), but in Stemonitis and its allies (figs. 17 and 18) it is an axial structure. A central columella may project into the interior of the sporangium, either in stalked (fig. 15) or sessile (fig. 13) forms. FIG. 16. — Lepidoderma tigrinum. c, Sporangium ( X 6) ; the crystal- line disks of lime are seen attached to the sporangium- wall. b, Capillitium and spores (X 140). FIG. 17. — Lamproderma irlaeum. a, Sporangia (X 2%). 6, A Sporangium deprived of spores, showing the capillitium and remains of the sporangium- wall (X 25). FIG. 18. — Stemonitis splendens. a, Group of Sporangia (nat. size). b, Portion of columella and capil- litium, the latter branching to form a superficial network (X 42)- The sporangium-wall may be most delicate and evanescent (fig. 1 7) , or consist of a superficial network of threads (fig. 18), which in Dictydium (fig. 19) present a beautifully regular arrangement. FIG. 19. — Dictydium umblicatum. FIG. 20. — Arcyria punicca. a. Group of Sporangia, nat. size, a, Group of Sporangia (X 2). b, A Sporangium after dispersion b, Capillitium (X 560). of the spores (X 20). c, Spore (X 560). In Chondrioderma (fig. 13) the wall is double, the inner layer being membranous, the outer thickly encrusted with lime granules. In Cralerium the upper part of the sporangium-wall is lid-like and falls away, leaving the spores in an open cup (fig. 14). MYCETOZOA 109 The condition of the capiliitium is very various. In the Calcari- neae the lime may be generally distributed through it (fig. n), or aggregated at the nodes of the network in " lime-knots " (figs. 12 and 14) or it may be absent from the capiliitium altogether. The capiliitium attains its highest development in the Calonemineae in which the threads, distinct (in which case they are known as elaters, figs. 9 and 10) or united into a network (fig. 20), present regular thickenings in the form of spiral bands or transverse bars. These threads, altering their shape with varying states of moisture, are efficient agents in distributing the spores. In another group, the Anemineae, the capiliitium is absent altogether. The Didymiaceae are characterized by the fact that the lime, though present in a granular form in the plasmodium, is deposited on the sporangium-wall in the form of crystals, either in radiating groups (fig. 15) or in disks (fig. 16). In most Endosporeae the sporangia are separate symmetrical bodies, but in many genera a form of fructification occurs in which FIG. 21. — Fuligo septica. FIG. 22" — Licea flexuosa. a, Aethalium ( X 1). a, Groupof Plasmodiocarps (X2). b, Capiliitium threads (with b, A continuous Plasmodiocarp lime-knots) and two spores (X 6). (X 120). c, Spores (X 200). the spores are produced in masses of more or less irregular outline, retaining in extreme cases much of the diffuse character of the plas- modium. With the spores they contain capiliitium, but there are no traces of sporangial walls to be found in their interior. They are known as plasmodiocarps (fig. 22). They are characteristic of certain species, but in others they may be formed side by side with separate sporangia from the same plasmodium. There is indeed no sharp line to be drawn between sporangia and plasmodiocarps. On the other hand, the crowded condition of the sporangia of some species forms a transition to the large compound fructifications known as aethalia (fig. 21). These, either in their young stages or up to maturity, retain some evidence of their formation by a coalescence of sporangia, and in addition to the capiliitium they are generally penetrated by the remains of the walls of the sporangia which have thus united. Exosporeae. It will be convenient to begin our survey of the life-history of Ceratiomyxa, the single representative of the Exo- sporeae, at the stage at which the plasmodium emerges from the rotten wood in which it has fed. At this stage it has been observed to spread as a film over a slide, and to exhibit the network of channels and rhythmic flow of the proto- plasm in a manner precisely similar to that seen in the Endosporeae (20, p. 10). It soon, however, draws to- gether into compact masses, From the surface of which finger-like or antler-like lobes grow upwards. Here too the secretion of a trans- parent mucoid substance occurs, which is at first From Lankcster's Treatise on Zoology; figs, o penetrated by the anasto- and c-h after A. Lister; 6g. b after Fatnintzin mosing Strands of the and Woronin. protoplasm, but gradually FIG. 23. — Ceratiomyxa mucida. the latter tends more and a, Ripe sporophore (X 40). more to form a reticular and 6, Maturing sporophore showing the ultimately a nearly continu- development of the spores. ous superficial investment, c, Ripe spore. Instead of the single covering the mucoid ma- nucleus here indicated there should terial. The latter even- be four nuclei, as in d. tually dries and forms the d, Hatching spore. exceedingly delicate support e-h. Stages in the development of the of the spores or sporophore zoospores. (fig. 23, a). The investing proto- plasm, with its nuclei, having become arranged in an even layer, undergoes cleavage and thus forms a pavement-like layer of protoplasmic masses, each occupied by a single nucleus (fig. 23, b). Each of these masses now grows out perpendicularly to the surface of the sporophore. As it does so an envelope is secreted, which, closing in about the base forms a slender stalk. The minute mass, borne on the stalk, becomes the ellipsoid spore, surrounded by the spore-wall. In this manner the whole of the protoplasmic substance of the plasmodium is converted into spores, borne on supporting structures (stalks and sporophores) , which are formed by secretion of the protoplasm. In the course of the development of which the external features have now been traced nuclear changes occur of which accounts have been given by Jahn (14) and by Olive (24 and 25). Jahn has shown that prior to the cleavage of the protoplasm a mitotic division of the nuclei takes place, the daughter nuclei of which are those occupying the protoplasmic masses seen in fig. 23 b.1 After the spore has risen on its stalk two further mitotic divisions occur in rapid succession, and the four-nucleated condition characteristic of the spore of Ceratiomyxa, is thus attained. The spores, on being brought into water, soon hatch (fig. 23, d), and the four nuclei contained in them undergo a mitotic division. Meanwhile the protoplasm divides, at first into four, then into eight masses, and the latter acquire flagella, although for some time remaining con- nected with their fellows (fig. 23, e-h). On separating each is a free zoospore. From observation of cultivations of zoospores the impression is that here, as in the Endosporeae, they multiply by binary division, though no exact observations of the process have been recorded. The zoospores lose their flagella and become amoebulae, but the fusion of the latter to form plasmodia has not been directly observed in Ceratiomyxa, although from analogy with the Endosporeae it can hardly be doubted that such fusions occur. Sorophora. The Sorophora of Zopf (Acrasiae of Van Tieghem) are a group of microscopic organisms inhabit- ing the dung of herbivorous animals and other decaying vegetable matter. As Pinoy (26) has shown, the presence of a particular species of bacteria with the spores is necessary for their hatching and as the essential food of the amoebulae which emerge from them. There is no flagellate stage, and it is in the form of amoebulae, multiplying by fission, that the vegetative stage of the life- history is passed. At the end of this stage numbers of amoe- bulae draw together to form a " pseudo-plasmodium." This appears to be merely an aggre- gation of amoebulae prior to spore formation. The outlines of the individual amoebulae are maintained, and there is no fu- sion between them, as in the formation of the plasmodium of the Euplasmodida. In some genera certain of the amoebulae constituting the pseudo-plasmodium are modi- fied into a stalk (simple in Guttulina and Dictyostelium, branched in Polysphondylium, fig. 24, d), along which the From other units creep to encyst, and become spores at the end Lankester's Treatise on a and b after Fayod ; c and d after from Zopf. or ends of the" stalk. In"other FlG- 24-— a, and 6, Copromyxa pro- cases (Copromyxa, fig. 24, a tea> slightly magnified. and 6) the pseudo-plasmodium c and d, Polysphondylium via- is transformed into a mass of laceum. encysted spores without the1 c< A young sorus, seen in optical differentiation of supporting structures. It is not impossible that the Myxobacteriaceae of Thaxter may, as that author suggests, be allied to the Sorophora (30). section. A mass of elongated amoebulae are grouped round the stalk, and others are ex- tended about the base (X 165). A sorus approaching maturity (X 30). Review of the Life-Histories of the Mycetozoa. — The data for a comparison of the life-history of the Mycetozoa with those of other Protozoa in respect of nuclear changes are at present incomplete. 'Jahn (14) described two mitotic divisions at this stage, but in ' Myxomycetenstudien 7— Ceratiomyxa," Ber. deut. hot. Gesellsch. xxvi. a (1908) he shows that only one mitotic division occurs in the maturing sporophore prior to cleavage. Olive gives a preliminary account of a fusion of nuclei prior to cleavage, but as he has not seen the mitotic division which certainly occurs at this stage hia results cannot be accepted as secure. I IO MYCONIUS, F.— MYDDELTON At some stage or other we are led by analogy to expect that a division of nuclei would occur in which the number of chromosomes would be reduced by one half, that this would be followed by the formation of gametes, and that the nuclei of the latter would subse- quently fuse in karyogamy. It is clear that both in the Endosporeae and Exosporeae a mitotic division of nuclei immediately precedes spore-formation. This is regarded by Jahn as a reduction division. If this is the case, the zoospores or the amoebulae must in some way represent the gametes. The fusion of the latter to form plasmodia appears to offer a pro- cess comparable with the conjugation of gametes, but though the fusion of the protoplasm of the amoebulae has been often observed no fusion of their nuclei (karyogamy) has been found to accompany it. A fusion of nuclei has indeed been described as occurring in the plasmodium, or at stages in the development of the sporangia or sporophores, but in no case can the evidence be regarded as satis- factory.1 Until we have clear evidence on this point the nuclear history of the mycetozoa must remain incomplete. Jahn's observation of the mitotic division of nuclei preceding spore-formation in Ceratiomyxa gives a fixed point for comparison of the Exosporeae with the Endosporeae. Starting from this divi- sion it seems clear that the spore of Ceratiomyxa is comparable with the spore of the Endosporeae except that the nucleus of the former has undergone two mitotic divisions. LITERATURE. — (i) A. de Bary, " Die Mycetozoen," Zeitschr.f. wiss. Zool., x. 88 (1860). (2) " Die Mycetozoen," (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1864). (3) Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa and Bacteria, translation (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1887). (4) O. Butschli, " Protozoa, Abth. g, Sarcodina," Bronn's Thierreich, Bd. i. (5) L. Cienkowski, " Die Pseudogonidien," Pring- sheim's Jahrbiicher, i. 371. (6) " Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Myxomyceten," Pringsheim's Jahrbiicher, iii. 325 (pub. 1862). (7)" Das Plasmodium, ibid. p. 400(1863). (8)" Beitrage zur Kennt- niss der Monaden," Arch. f. mikr. Anal. i. 203 (1865). (9) J. C. Constantineanu, " Ueber die Entwicklungsbedingungen der Myxo- myceten," Annales mycologiti, Vierter Jahrg. (Dec. 1906). (io) A. Famintzin and M. Woronin, " Ueber zwei neue Formen von Schleim- pilzen Ceratium hydnoides, A. und Sch., and C. porioides, A. und Sch.," Mem. de Vacad. imp. d. sciences de St Petersburg, series 7, T. 20, No. 3 (1873). (11) M. Greenwood and E. R. Saunders, " On the R61e of Acid in Protozoan Digestion," Jour, of Physiology, xvi. 441 (1894). (12) R. A. Harper, " Cell and Nuclear Division in Fuligo varians," Botanical Gazette, vol. 30, No. 4, p. 217 (1900). (13) E. Jahn, " Myxo- mycetenstudien 3. Kernteilung u. Geisselbildung bei den Schwarmern von Stemonitis flaccida, Lister," Bericht d. deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft, Bd. 22 p. 84 (1904). (14) " Myxomycetenstudien 6. Kernverschmelzungen und Reduktionsteilungen,' ibid. Bd. 25, p. 23 (1907). (15) W. Saville Kent, " The Myxomycetes or Myceto- zoa; Animals or Plants?" Popular Science Review, n.s., v. 97 (1881). (16) H. Kranzlin, " Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Spor- angien bei den Trichien und Arcyrien," Arch. f. Protistenkunde, Bd. ix. Heft. I, p. 170 (1907). (17) A. Lister, " Notes on the Plasmo- dium of Badhamia utricularis and Brefeldia maxima," Ann. of Botany, vol. ii. No. 5 (1888). (18) " On the Ingestion of Food Material by the Swarm-Cells of the Mycetozoa," Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot) xxv. 435 (1889). (19) " On the Division of Nuclei in the Mycetozoa," Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) vol. xxix. (1893). (2°) " A Monograph of the Mycetozoa," British Museum Catalogue (London, 1894). (21) " Presidential Address to the British Mycological Society," Trans. Brit. Mycological Soc. (1906). (22) A. and G. Lister, " Synopsis of the Orders, Genera and Species of Mycetozoa," Journal ofBotany, vol. xlv. (May 1907). (23) E. W. Olive, " Monograph of the Acrasiae," Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. History, vol. xxx. No. 6 (1902). (24) " Evidences of Sexual Reproduction in the Slime Moulds," Science, n.s., xxv. 266 (Feb. 1907). (25) " Cytological Studies in Ceratiomyxa, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sciences, Arts and Letters, vol. xv., pt. ii. p. 753 (Dec. 1907). (26) E. Pinoy, " Role desbacteries dans le developpement de certains Myxomycetes," Ann. de I'institut Pasteur, T. xxi. pp. 622 and 686 (1907). (27) H. Plenge, " Ueber die Verbindungen zwischen Geissef u. Kern bei den Schwarmer- zellen d. Mycetozoen," Verh. d. nvturhist.-med. Vereins zu Heidelberg, N.F. Bd. vi. Heft 3 (1899). (28) S. von Prowazek " Kernverander- ungen in Myxomycetenplasmodien," Oesterreich. botan. Zeitschr. Bd. liv. p. 278 (1904). (29) E. Strasburger, " Zur Entwickelungs- geschichte d. Sporangien von Trifhia fallax," Botanische Zeitung (1884). (30) R. Thaxter, " On the Myxobacteriaceae, a new order of Schizomycetes," Botanical Gazette, xvii. 389 (1892). (31) W. Zopf, " Die Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze," Schenk's Handbuch der Botanik (1887). O.J-LR-) MYCONIUS, FRIEDRICH (1400-1546), Lutheran divine, was born on the 26th of December 1490, at Lichtenfels on the Main, of worthy and pious parents, whose family name, Mecum, gave 1 In the work cited in the last footnote Jahn described a fusion of nuclei as occurring in Ceratiomyxa at the stage at which the plasmodium is emerging to form sporophores. Jahn was at first inclined to regard this fusion as the sexual karyogamy of the life- cycle, but the writer learns by correspondence (July 1910) that he is inclined to regard this fusion as pathological, ana to look for the essential karyogamy elsewhere. rise to proud uses of the word as it appears in various places in the Vulgate, whereas Myconius, from the island Myconus, was a proverb for meanness. His schooling was in Lichtenfels and at Annaberg, where he had a memorable encounter with the. Dominican, Tetzel, his point being that indulgences should be given pauperibus gratis. His teacher, Staffelstein, persuaded him to enter (July 14, 1510) the Franciscan cloister. That same night a pictorial dream turned his thoughts towards the religious standpoint which he subsequently reached • as a Lutheran. From Annaberg he passed to Franciscan commu- nities at Leipzig and Weimar, where he was ordained priest (1516); he had endeavoured to satisfy his mind with scholastic divinity, but next year his " eyes and ears were opened " by the theses of Luther, whom he met when Luther touched at Weimar on his way to Augsburg. For six years he preached his new gospel, under difficulties, in various seats of his order, lastly at Zwickau, whence he was called to Gotha (Aug. 1524) by Duke John at the general desire. Here he married Margaret Jacken, a lady of good family. He was intimately connected with the general progress of the reforming movement, and was especially in the confidence of Luther. Twice he was entrusted (1528 and 1533) with the ordering of the churches and schools in Thuringia. In all the religious disputations and conferences of the time he took a leading part. At the Con- vention of Smalkald (1537) he signed the articles on his own behalf and that of his friend Justus Menius. In 1538 he was in England, as theologian to the embassy which hoped to induce Henry VIII. on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, to make common cause with the Lutheran reformation; a project which Myconius caustically observed might have prospered on con- dition that Henry was allowed to be pope. Next year he was employed in the cause of the Reformation in Leipzig. Not the least important part of his permanent work in Gotha was the founding and endowment of its gymnasium. In 1541 his health was failing, but he lived till the 7th of April 1546. He had nine children, four of whom were living in 1542. Though he published a good many tracts and pamphlets, Myconius was not distinguished as a writer. His Historia reformationis , referring especially to Gotha, was not printed till 1715. See Mel- chior Adam, Vitae theologorum (1706); J. G. Bosseck, F. Myconii Memoriam . . . (1739) ; C. K. G. Lommatzsch, Narratio de F. Myconio (1825); K. F. Ledderhose, F. Myconius (1854); also in Allgemeine deutsche Biog. (1886); O. Schmidt and G. Kawerau in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1903). (A. Go.*) MYCONIUS, OSWALD (1488-1552), Zwinglian divine, was born at Lucerne in 1488. His family name was Geisshiisler; his father was a miller; hence he was also called MOLITORIS. The name Myconius seems to have been given him by Erasmus. From the school at Rottweil, on the Neckar, he went (1510) to the university of Basel, and became a good classic. From 1514 he obtained schoolmaster posts at Basel, where he married, and made the acquaintance of Erasmus and of Holbein, the painter. In 1516 he was called, as schoolmaster, to Zurich, where (1518) he attached himself to the reforming party of Zwingli. This led to his being transferred to Lucerne, and again (1523) reinstated at Zurich. On the death of Zwingli (1531) he migrated to Basel, and there held the office of town's preacher, and (till 1541) the chair of New Testament exegesis. His spirit was comprehensive; in confessional matters he was for a union of all Protestants; though a Zwinglian, his readiness to compromise with the advocates of consubstantiation gave him trouble with the Zwinglian stalwarts. He had, however, a distinguished follower in Theodore Bibliander. He died on the I4th of October 1552. Among his several tractates, the most important is De H. Zimnglii vita et obitu (1536), translated into English by Henry Bcnnet (1561). See Melchior Adam, Vita theologorum (1620); M. Kirch- hofer, O. Myconius (1813); K. R. Hagenbach, J. Oekolampad und O. Myconius (1859); F. M. Ledderhose, in Allgemeine deutsche Biog. (1886) ; B. Riggenbach and Egli, in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1903). (A. Go.*) MYDDELTON (or MIDDLETON), SIR HUGH, BART. (c. 1560- 1631), contractor of the New River scheme for supplying London with water, was a younger son of Sir Richard Myddelton, governor of Denbigh Castle. Hugh became a successful London MYELAT— MYERS in goldsmith, occupying a shop in Bassihaw, or Basinghall Street; he made money by commercial ventures on the Spanish main, being associated in these with Sir Walter Raleigh; and he was also interested in cloth-making. He was an alderman, and then recorder of Denbigh, and was member of parliament for this borough from 1603 to 1628. In 1609 Myddelton took over from the corporation of London the projected scheme for supplying the city with water obtained from springs near Ware, in Hert- fordshire. For this purpose he made a canal about 10 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep and over 38 m. in length, which discharged its waters into a reservoir at Islington called the New River Head. The completion of this great undertaking put a severe strain upon Myddelton 's financial resources, and in 1612 he was successful in securing monetary assistance from James I. The work was completed in 1613 and Myddelton was made the first governor of the company, which, however, was not a financial success until after his death. In recognition of his services he was made a baronet in 1622. Myddelton was also engaged in working some lead and silver mines in Cardiganshire and in reclaiming a piece of the Isle of Wight from the sea. He died on the loth of December 1631, and was buried in the church of St Matthew, Friday Street, London. He had a family of ten sons and six daughters. One of Sir Hugh's brothers was Sir Thomas Myddelton (c. 1550-1631), lord mayor of London, and another was William Myddelton (c. 1556-1621), poet and seaman, whc died at Antwerp on the 27th of March 1621. Sir Thomas was a member of parliament under Queen Eliza- beth and was chosen lord mayor on the 2oth of September 1613, the day fixed for the opening of the New River. Under James I. and Charles I. he represented the city of London in parliament, and he helped Rowland Heylyn to publish the first popular edition of the Bible in Welsh. He died on the i2th of August 1631. Sir Thomas's son and heir, Sir Thomas Myddelton (1586-1666), was a member of the Long Parliament, being an adherent of the popular party. After the outbreak of the Civil War he served in Shropshire and in north Wales, gaining a signal success over the royalists at Oswestry in July 1644, and another at Montgomery in the following September. In 1659, however, he joined the rising of the royalists under Sir George Booth, and in August of this year he was forced to surrender his residence, Chirk Castle. His eldest son, Thomas (d. 1663), was made a baronet in 1660, a dignity which became extinct when William the 4th baronet died in 1718. MYELAT, a division of the southern Shan States of Burma, including sixteen states, none of any great size, with a total area of 3723 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 119,415. The name properly means " the unoccupied country," but it has been occupied for many centuries. All central Myelat and great parts of the northern and southern portions consist of rolling grassy downs quite denuded of jungle. It has a great variey of different races, Taungthus and Danus being perhaps the most numerous. They are all more or less hybrid races. The chiefs of the Myelat are known by the Burmese title of gwegunh- mu, i.e. chiefs paying the revenue in silver. The amount paid by the chiefs to the British government is Rs. 99,567. The largest state, Loi L6ng, has an area of 1600 sq. m., a great part of which is barren hills. The smallest, Nam Hkon, had no more than 4 sq. m., and has been recently absorbed in a neigh- bouring state. The majority of the states cover less than loo sq. m. Under British administration the chiefs have powers of a magistrate of the second class. The chief cultivation besides rice is sugar-cane, and considerable quantities of crude sugar are exported. There is a considerable potato cultivation, which can be indefinitely extended when cheaper means of export are provided. Wheat also grows very well. MYELITIS (from Gr. juueXos, marrow) a disease which by inflammation induces destructive changes in the tissues com- posing the spinal cord. In the acute variety the nerve elements in the affected part become disintegrated and softened, but repair may take place; in the chronic form the change is slower, and the diseased area tends to become denser (sclerosed), the nerve-substance being replaced by connective tissue. Myelitis may affect any portion of the spinal cord, and its symptoms and progress will vary accordingly. Its most frequent site is in the lower part, and its existence there is marked by the sudden or gradual occurrence of weakness of motor power in the legs (which tends to pass into complete paralysis), impairment or loss of sensibility in the parts implicated, nutritive changes affecting the skin and giving rise to bed-sores, together with bladder and bowel derangements. In the acute form, in which there is at first pain in the region of the spine and much con- stitutional disturbance, death may take place rapidly from extension of the disease to those portions of the cord connected with the muscles of respiration and the heart, from an acute bed-sore, which is very apt to form, or from some intercurrent disease. Recovery to a certain extent may, however, take place; or, again, the disease may pass into the chronic form. In the latter the progress is usually slow, the general health remaining tolerably good for a time, but gradually the strength fails, the patient becomes more helpless, and ultimately sinks exhausted or is cut off by some complication. The chief causes of myelitis are injuries or diseases affecting the spinal column, extension of inflammation from the membranes of the cord to its substance (see MENINGITIS), exposure to cold and damp, and occasionally some pre-existing constitutional morbid condition, such as syphilis or a fever. Any debilitating cause or excess in mode of life will act powerfully in predisposing to this malady. The disease is most common in adults. The treatment for myelitis in its acute stage is similar to that for spinal meningitis. When the disease is chronic the most that can be hoped for is the relief of symptoms by careful nursing and attention to the condition of the body and its functions. Good is sometimes derived from massage and the use of baths and douches to the spine. MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901), English poet and essayist, son of Frederic Myers of Keswick — author of Lectures on Great Men (1856) andCatholic Thoughts (first collected 1873), a book marked by a most admirable prose style — was born at Keswick, Cumberland, pn the 6th of February 1843, and edu- cated at Cheltenham and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he won a long list of honours and in 1865 was appointed classical lecturer. He had no love for teaching, which he soon discon- tinued, but he took up his permanent abode at Cambridge in 1872, when he became a school inspector under the Education Department. Meanwhile he published, in 1867, an unsuccessful essay for the Seatonian prize, a poem entitled St Paul, which met at the hands of the general public with a success that would be difficult to explain, for it lacks sincerity and represents views which the writer rapidly outgrew. It was followed by small volumes of collected verses in 1870 and 1882: both are marked by a flow of rhetorical ardour which culminates in a poem of real beauty, " The Renewal of Youth," in the 1882 collection. His best verse is in heroic couplets. Myers is more likely to be remembered by his two volumes of Essays, Classical and Modern (1883). The essay on Virgil, by far the best thing he ever wrote, represents the matured enthusiasm of a student and a disciple to whom the exquisite artificiality and refined culture of Virgil's method were profoundly congenial. Next to this in value is the carefully wrought essay on Ancient Greek Oracles (this had first appeared in Hellenica). Scarcely less delicate in phrasing and perception, if less penetrating in insight, is the monograph on Wordsworth (1881) for the " English Men of Letters " series. In 1882, after several years of inquiry and discussion, Myers took the lead among a small band of explorers (including Henry Sidgwick and Richard Hodgson, Edmund Gurney and F. Podmore), who founded the society for Psychical Research. He continued for many years to be the mouthpiece of the society, a position for which his perfermdum ingenium, still more his abnormal fluency and alertness, admirably fitted him. He contributed greatly to the coherence of the society by steering a mid-course between extremes (the extreme sceptics on the one hand, and the enthusiastic spiritualists on the other), and by helping to sift and revise the cumbrous mass of 112 MYINGYAN— MYLODON Proceedings, the chief concrete results being the two volumes of Phantasms of the Living (1886), to which he contributed the in- troduction. Like many theorists, he had a faculty for ignoring hard facts, and in his anxiety to generalize plausibly upon the alleged data, and to hammer out striking formulae, his insight into the real character of the evidence may have left something to be desired. His long series of papers on subliminal conscious- ness, the results of which were embodied in a posthumous work called Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (2 vols. 1903), constitute his own chief contribution to psychical theory. This, as he himself would have been the first to admit, was little more than provisional; but Professor William James has pointed out that the series of papers on subliminal consciousness is " the first attempt to consider the phenomena of hallucination, hypnotism, automatism, double personality and mediumship, as connected parts of one whole subject." The last work published in his lifetime was a small collection of essays, Science and a Future Life (1893). He died at Rome on the i7th of January 1901, but was buried in his native soil at Keswick. MYINGYAN, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper Burma. It lies in the valley of the Irrawaddy, to the south of Mandalay, on the east bank of the river. Area, 3137 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 356,052, showing an increase of i% in the decade and a density of 1 14 inhabitants to the square mile. The greater part of the district is flat, especially to the north and along the banks of the Irrawaddy. Inland the country rises in gently undulating slopes. The most noticeable feature is Popa hill, an extinct volcano, in the south-eastern corner of the district. The highest peak is 4962 ft. above sea-level. The climate is dry and healthy, with high south winds from March till September. The annual rainfall averages about 35 in. The temperature varies between 106° and 70° F. The ordinary crops are millet, sesamum, cotton, maize, rice, gram, and a great variety of peas and beans. The district as a whole is not well watered, and most of the old irrigation tanks had fallen into disrepair before the annexation. There are no forests, but a great deal of low scrub. The lacquer ware of Nyaung-u and other villages near Pagan is noted throughout Burma. A considerable number of Chinese inhabit Myingyan and the larger villages. The headquarters town, MYINGYAN, stands on the Irrawaddy, and had a population in 1901 of 16,139. It ifi the terminus of the branch railway through Meiktila to the main line from Mandalay to Rangoon. The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also call here. A cotton-pressing machine was erected here in the time of independent Burma, and still exists. MYITKYINA, the most northerly of the districts of Upper Burma in the Mandalay division, separated from Bhamo district in 1895. It is cut up into strips by comparatively low parallel ranges of hills running in a general way north and south. The chief plain is that of Myitkyina, covering 600 sq. m. To the east of the Irrawaddy, which bisects the district, it is low-lying and marshy. To the west it rises to a higher level, and is mostly dry. Except in the hills inhabited by the Kachin tribes there are practically no villages off the line of the Irrawaddy. The Indawgyi lake, a fine stretch of water measuring 16 m. by 6, lies in the south-west of the district. A very small amount of cultivation is carried on, mostly without irrigation. Area, 10,640 sq. m.; estimated population (1901) 67,399, showing a density of six persons to the square mile. More than half the total are Kachins, who inhabit the hills on both sides of the Irrawaddy. The headquarters town, MYITKYINA, had in 1901 a population of 3618. It is the limit of navigation on the Irrawaddy, and the terminus of the railway from Rangoon and Sagaing. MYLODON (Gr. for " mill-tooth " from io>Ma> and 65ous), a genus of extinct American edentate mammals, typified by a species (M . harlani) from the Pleistocene of Kentucky and other parts of the United States, but more abundantly represented in the corresponding formations of South America, especially Argentina and Brazil. The mylodons belong to the group of ground-sloths, and are generally included in the family Megath- eriidae, although sometimes made the type of a separate family. From Megatherium these animals, which rivalled the Indian rhinoceros in bulk, differ in the shape of their cheek-teeth ; these (five above and four below) being much smaller, with an ovate section, and a cupped instead of a ridged crown-surface, thus resembling those of the.true sloths. In certain species of mylodon the front pair of teeth in each jaw is placed some distance in front of the rest and has the crown surface obliquely bevelled by From Owen. Skeleton of Mylodon robustus (Pleistocene, South America). wearing against the corresponding teeth in the opposite jaw. On this account such species have been referred to a second genus, under the name of Leslodon, but the distinction scarcely seems necessary. The skull is shorter and lower than in Megatherium, without any vertical expansion of the middle of the lower jaw, and the teeth also extend nearly to the front of the jaws; both these features being sloth-like. In the fore feet the three inner toes have large claws, while the two outer ones are rudimentary and clawless; in the hind-limbs the first toe is wanting, as in Megatherium, but the second and third are clawed. The skin was strengthened by a number of small deeply-embedded bony nodules. Although the typical M. harlani is North American, the mylodons are essentially a South American group, a few of the representatives of which effected an entrance into North America when that continent became finally connected with South America. Special interest attaches to the recent discovery in the cavern of Ultima Esperanza, South Patagonia, of remains of the genus Glossotherium, or Grypolherium, a near relative of Mylodon, but differing from it in having a bony arch connecting the nasal bones of the skull with the premaxillae; these include a considerable portion of the skin with the hair attached. Ossicles somewhat resembling large coffee-berries had been previously found in association with the bones of Mylodon, and in Glossotherium nearly similar ossicles occur embedded on the inner side of the thick hide. The coarse and shaggy hair is somewhat like that of the sloths. The remains, which include not only the skeleton and skin, but likewise the droppings, were found buried in grass which appears to have been chopped up by man, and it thus seems not only evident that these ground-sloths dwelt in the cave, but that there is a considerable probability of their having been kept there in a semi-domesti- cated state by the early human inhabitants of Patagonia. The extremely fresh condition of the remains has given rise to the idea that Glossotherium may still be living in the wilds of Patagonia. Scelidotherium is another genus of large South American Pleisto- cene ground-sloths, characterized, among other features, by the elongation and slenderness of the skull, which thus makes a decided approximation to the anteater type, although retaining the full series of cheek-teeth, which were, of course, essential to an herbi- vorous animal. The feet resemble those of Megatherium. \ much smaller South American species represents the genus Nothrotherium. In North America Mylodon was accompanied by another gigantic species typifying the genus Megalonyx, in which the fore part of the skull was usually wide, and the third and fourth front toes carried claws. Another genus has been described from the Pleistocene MYLONITE— MYRA of Nebraska, as Paramylodon; it has only four pairs of teeth, and an elongate skull with an inflated muzzle. All the above genera differ from Megatherium in having a foramen on the inner side of the lower end of the humerus. A presumed large ground-sloth from Mada- gascar has been described, on the evidence of a limb-bone, as Brady- therium, but it is suggested by Dr F. Ameghino that the specimen really belongs to a lemuroid. Be this as it may, the North American mammals described as Moropm and Morotherium, in the belief that they were ground-sloths, are really referable to the ungulate group Ancylopoda. Although a few of the Pleistocene ground-sloths, such as Nothro- pus and Nothrotherium ( = Coelodon), were of comparatively small size, in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia few of the representatives of the family much exceeded a modern sloth in size. The best- known generic types are Eucholoeops, Hapalops and Pseudahapalops, of which considerable portions of the skeleton have been disinterred. In these diminutive ground-sloths the crowns of the cheek-teeth approached the prismatic form characteristic of Mega[lo]therium, as distinct from the subcylindrical type occurring in Mylodon, Glossotherium, &c. By many palaeontologists a group of 'North American Lower Tertiary mammals, known as Ganodonta, has been regarded as representing the ancestral stock of the ground-sloths and those of other South American edentates; but according to Professor W. B. Scott this view is incorrect and there is no affinity between the two groups. If this be so, we are still in complete darkness as to the stock from which the South American edentates are derived. See W. B. Scott, Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata, Rep., Princeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904) ; B. Brown A New Genus of Ground-Sloth from the Pleistocene of Nebraska, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xix, 569 (1903). (R. L.*) MYLONITE (Gr. juuXoiJ', a mill), in petrology, a rock which has been crushed and ground down by earth movement and at the same time rendered compact by pressure. Mylonites are fine- grained, sometimes even flinty, in appearance, and often banded in parallel fashion with stripes of varying composition. The great majority are quartzose rocks, such as quartzite and quartz- schist; but in almost any type of rock mylonitic structure may be developed. Gneisses of various kinds, hornblende-schists, chlorite-schists and limestones are not infrequently found in belts of mylonitic rock. The process of crushing by which mylonites are formed is known also as " granulitization " and " cataclasis," and mylonites are often described as granuh'tes, though the two terms are not strictly equivalent in all their applications. Mylonites occur in regions where there has been considerable metamorphism. Thrust planes and great reversed faults are often bounded by rocks which have all been crushed to fine slabby mylonites, that split readily along planes parallel to the direction in which movement has taken place. These " crush-belts " may be only a few feet or several hundred yards broad. The movements have probably taken place slowly without great rise of temperature, and hence the rocks have not recrystallized to any extent. Crushing and movement on so extensive a scale are to be expected principally in regions consisting of rocks greatly folded and compressed. Hence mylonites are commonest in Archean regions, but may be found also in Carboniferous and later rocks where the necessary conditions have prevailed. Within a short space it is often possible to trace rocks from a normal to a highly mylonized condition, and to follow by means of the microscope all the stages of the process. A sandstone, grit, or fine quartzose conglomerate, for example, when it approaches a mylonitic zone begins to lose its clastic or pebbly structure. The rounded grains of quartz become cracked, especially near their edges, and are then surrounded by narrow borders, consisting of detached granules: this is due to the pebbles being pressed together and forced to pass one another as the rock yields to the pressures which overcome its rigidity. Then each quartz grain breaks up into a mosaic of little angular fragments; the rounded pebbles are flattened out and become lenticular or cake- shaped. Finally only a small oval patch of fine interlocking quartz grains is left to indicate the position of the pebble, and if the matrix is quartzose this gradually blends with it and a uniform fine-grained quartzose rock results. If felspar is present it may become crushed like quartz, but often tends to recrystallize as quartz and muscovite, the minute scales of white mica being parallel to the foliation or banding of the rock, and a finely granulitic or mylonitic quartz- schist is the product. In hornblendic rocks, such as epidiorite, amphibolite and hornblende-schist, the mineral composition may remain unchanged, but very often chlorite, carbonates and biotite develop, epidote and sphene being also frequent. Biotite- and mus- covite-gneisses yield very perfect mylonites, in which the micas have parallel orientation, giving the rock a flat banding and marked schistosity (see PETROLOGY, PI. iv., fig. 6). When these mylonitic gneisses contain pink garnet (often with kyanite or sillimanite) they pass into normal granulites; limestones, if fossiliferous, become changed into finely crystalline masses, often fissile, sometimes with lenticular or augen structure. An interesting variety of mylonite, developed in granite-porphyry and gneiss, is fine, dark and almost vitreous in appearance, consisting mainly of very minute grains of quartz and felspar and resembling flint in appearance. These form threads and vein-like streaks ramifying through the normal rocks. Examples are furnished by the flinty-crushes of west Scot- land and the " trap-shotten " gneisses of south India. (J. S. F.) MYMENSINGH, or MAIMANSINGH, a district of British India, in the Dacca division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies a portion of the alluvial valley of the Brahmaputra east of the main channel (called the Jamuna) and north of Dacca. The administrative headquarters are at Nasirabad, sometimes called Mymensingh town. Area, 6332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 3,915,068, showing an increase of 12-8% in the decade. The district is for the most part level and open, covered with well-cultivated fields, and intersected by numerous rivers. The Madhupur jungle is a slightly elevated tract, extending from the north of Dacca district into the heart of Mymensingh; its average height is about 60 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, and it nowhere exceeds 100 ft. The jungle contains abundance of sal, valuable both as timber and for charcoal. The only other elevated tract in the district is on the southern border, where the Susang hills rise. They are for the most part covered with thick thorny jungle, but in parts are barren and rocky. The Jamuna forms the western boundary of Mymensingh for a course of 94 m. It is navigable for large boats throughout the year; and during the rainy season it expands in many places to 5 or 6 m. in breadth. The Brahmaputra enters Mymensingh at its north-western corner near Karaibari, and flows south-east and south till it joins the Meghna a little below Bhairab Bazar. The gradual formation of chars and bars of sand in the upper part of its course has diverted the main volume of water into the present channel of the Jamuna, which has in consequence become of much more importance than the Brahmaputra proper. The Meghna only flows for a short distance through the south-east portion of the district, the eastern and south-eastern parts of which abound in marshes. The staple crops of the country are rice, jute and oil-seeds. A branch line of the Eastern Bengal railway runs north from Dacca through Nasirabad, &c., to the Jamuna. The district was severely affected by the earthquake of the i2th of June 1897. MYNGS, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1625-1666), British admiral, came of a Norfolk family. Pepys' story of his humble birth is said to be erroneous. It is probable that he saw a good deal of sea-service before 1648. He first appears prominently as the captain of the " Elisabeth," which after a sharp action brought in a Dutch convoy with two men-of-war as prizes. From 1653 to 1655 he continued to command the " Elisabeth," high in favour with the council of state and recommended for promotion by the flag officers under whom he served. In 1655 he was appointed to the " Marston Moor," the crew of which was on the verge of mutiny. His firm measures quelled the insubordinate spirit, and he took the vessel out to the West Indies, where he remained for some years. The Restoration government retained him in his command, and in 1664 he was made vice-admiral in Prince Rupert's squadron. As vice-admiral of the White he flew his flag at Lowestoft in 1665, and for his share in that action received the honour of knighthood. In the following year he served under the new lord high admiral, Sandwich, as vice- admiral of the Blue. He was on detachment with Prince Rupert when the great Four Days' Battle began, but returned to the main fleet in time to take part, and in this action he received a wound of which he died. MYONEMES, in Infusoria and some Flagellates, the differ- entiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly refractive, performing the function of muscular fibres in the Metazoa. MYRA (mod. Dembre), an ancient town of Lycia situated a short distance inland between the rivers Myrus and Andracus. In common with that of most other Lycian towns its early history MYRIAPODA— MYRRH is not known, and it does not play any part of importance in either Greek or Roman annals. Its fame begins with Chris- tianity. There St Paul touched on his last journey westward (A.D. 62), and changed into " a ship of Alexandria sailing into Italy." In the 3rd century the great St Nicholas, born at Patara, was its bishop, and he died and was buried at Myra. His tomb is still shown, but his relics are supposed to have been trans- lated to Bari in Italy in the nth century. Theodosius II. made Myra the Byzantine capital of Lycia, and as such it was besieged and taken by Harun al-Rashid in 808. The town seems shortly afterwards to have decayed. A small Turkish village occupied the plain at the foot of the acropolis, and a little Greek monastery lay about a mile westward by the church of St Nicholas. The latter has formed the nucleus of modern Dembre, which has been increased by settlers from the Greek island of Castelorizo. Myra has three notable sights, its carved cliff-cemetery, its theatre, and its church of St Nicholas. The first is the most remarkable of the Lycian rock-tomb groups. The western scarp of the acropolis has been sculptured into a number of sepulchres imitating wooden houses with pillared facades, some of which have pediment reliefs and inscriptions in Lycian. The theatre lies at the foot of this cliff and is partly excavated out of it, partly built. It is remarkable for the preservation of its corri- dors. The auditorium is perfect in the lower part, and the scena still retains some of its decoration — both columns and carved entablature. The church of St Nicholas lies out in the plain, at the western end of Dembre, near a small monastery and new church recently built with Russian money. Its floor is far below the present level of the plain, and until recently the church was half filled with earth. The excavation of it was undertaken by Russians about 1894 and it cost Dembre dear; for the Ottoman government, suspicious of foreign designs on the neighbouring harbour of Kekova, proceeded to inhibit all sale of property in the plain and to place Dembre under a minor state of siege. The ancient church is of the domed basilica form with throne and seats still existent in the tribunal. In the south aisle as a tomb with marble balustrade which is pointed out as that wherein St Nicholas was laid. The locality of the tomb is very probably genuine, but its present ornament, as well as the greater part of the church, seems of later date (end of 7th century ?). None the less this is among the most interest- ing early Christian churches in Asia Minor. There are also extensive ruins of Andriaca, the port of Myra, about 3 m. west, containing churches, baths, and a great grain store, inscribed with Hadrian's name. They lie along the course of the Andraki river, whose navigable estuary is still fringed with ruinous quays. See E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, Reisen in Lykien, &c. (1889). (D. G. H.) MYRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged "), arthropod animals of which centipedes and millipedes are familiar examples. Linnaeus included them in his Insecta Aptera together with Crustacea and Arachnida; in 1796 P. A. Latreille designated them as Myriopoda, making of them, along with the Crustacean Oniscus, one of the seven orders into which he divided the Aptera of Linnaeus. Later on J. C. Savigny, by study of the mouth-parts, clearly distinguished them from Insects and Crus- tacea. In 1814 W. E. Leach defined them and divided them into Centipedes and Millipedes. In 1825 Latreille carried further the observations of Leach, and suggested that the two groups were very distinct, the millipedes being nearer Crustacea and the centipedes approaching Arachnida and Insecta. Although Latreille's suggestion has not been adopted, it is recognized that centipedes and millipedes are too far apart to be united as Myriapoda, and they are now treated as separate classes of the Arthropoda. See CENTIPEDE (Chilopoda) and MILLIPEDE (Diplopoda). MYRMIDONES, in Greek legend, an Achaean race, in Homeric times inhabiting Phthiotis in Thessaly. According to the ancient tradition, their original home was Aegina, whence they crossed over to Thessaly with Peleus, but the converse view is now more generally accepted. Their name is derived from a supposed ancestor, son of Zeus and Eurymedusa, who was wooed by the god in the form of an ant (Gr. /ivp/w;£); or from the repeopling of Aegina (when all its inhabitants had died of the plague) with ants changed into men by Zeus at the prayer of Aeacus, king of the island. The word " myrmidon " has passed into the English language to denote a subordinate who carries out the orders of his superior without mercy or consideration for others. See Strabo viii. 375, ix. 433; Homer, Iliad, ii. 681 ; schol. on Pindar Nem. iii. 21 ; Clem. Alex., Protrepticon, p. 34, ed. Potter. MYROBALANS, the name given to the astringent fruits of several species of Terminalia, largely used in India for dyeing and tanning and exported for the same purpose. They are large deciduous trees and belong to the family Combretaceae. The chief kinds are the chebulic or black myrobalan, from Terminalia Chebula, which are smooth, and the beleric, from T. belerica, which are five-angled and covered with a greyish down. MYRON, a Greek sculptor of the middle of the 5th century B.C. He was born at Eleutherae on the borders of Boeotia and Attica. He worked almost exclusively in bronze: and though he made some statues of gods and heroes, his fame rested principally upon his representations of athletes, in which he made a revolution, by introducing greater boldness of pose and a more perfect rhythm. His most famous works according to Pliny (Nat. Hist., 34, 57) were a cow, Ladas the runner, who fell dead at the moment of victory, and a discus-thrower. The cow seems to have earned its fame mainly by serving as a peg on which to hang epigrams, which tell us nothing about the pose of the animal. Of the Ladas there is no known copy. But we are fortunate in pos- sessing several copies of the discobolus, of which the best is in the Massimi palace at Rome (see GREEK ART, PI. iv. fig. 68). The example in the British Museum has the head put on wrongly. The athlete is represented at the moment when he has swung back the discus with the full stretch of his arm, and is about to hurl it with the full weight of his body. The head should be turned back toward the discus. A marble figure in the Lateran Museum (see GREEK ART, PI. iii. fig. 64), which is now restored as a dancing satyr, is almost certainly a copy of a work of Myron, a Marsyas desirous of picking up the flutes which Athena had thrown away (Pausa- nias, i. 24, i). The full group is copied on coins of Athens, on a vase and in a relief which represent Marsyas as oscillating between curiosity and the fear of the displeasure of Athena. The ancient critics say of Myron that, while he succeeded admirably in giving life and motion to his figures, he did not succeed in rendering the emotions of the mind. This agrees with the extant evidence, in a certain degree, though not per- fectly. The bodies of his men are of far greater excellence than the heads. The face of the Marsyas is almost a mask ; but from the attitude we gain a vivid impression of the passions which sway him. The face of the discus-thrower is calm and unruffled; but all the muscles of his body are concentrated in an effort. A considerable number of other extant works are ascribed to the school or the influence of Myron by A. Furtwangler in his suggestive Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (pp. 168-219). These attributions, however, are anything but certain, nor do the arguments by which Furtwangler supports his attributions bear abridgment. A recently discovered papyrus from Egypt informs us that Myron made statues of the athlete Timanthes, victorious at Olympia in 456 B.C., and of Lycinus, victorious in 448 and 444. This helps us to fix his date. He was a contemporary, but a somewhat older contemporary, of Pheidias and Polyclitus. (P.G.) MYRRH (from the Latinized form myrrha of Gr. /*u/5pa ; the Arabic murr, bitter, was applied to the substance from its bitterness), a gum-resin highly esteemed by the ancients as an unguent and perfume, used for incense in temples and also in embalming. It was one of the gifts offered by the Magi, and a royal oblation of gold, frankincense and myrrh is still annu- ally presented by the sovereign on the feast of Epiphany in the Chapel Royal in London, this custom having been in MYRTLE— MYSIA 1 1 existence certainly as early as the reign of Edward I.1 True myrrh is the product of Balsamodendron (Commiphora) Myrrha, a small tree of the natural order Amyridaceae that grows in eabtern Africa and Arabia, but the name is also applied to gum resins obtained from other species of Balsamodendi on. I. Baisa Bol, Bhesa Bol or Bissa Bol, from Balsamodendron Kataf, resembles true myrrh in appearance, but has a disagreeable taste and is scarcely bitter. It is used in China, mixed with food, to give to milch cows to improve the quality and increase the quantity of milk, and when mixed with lime as a size to impart a gloss to walls. (2) Opaque bdellium produced by B. Playfairii, when shaken with water forms a slight but permanent lather, and on this account is used by the Somali women for cleansing their hair, and by the men to whiten their shields; it is known as meena hdrma in Bombay, and was formerly used there for the expulsion of the guinea-worm. (3) African bdellium is from B. africanum. and like opaque bdellium lacks the white streaks which are characteristic of myrrh and bissa bol, both are acrid, but have scarcely any bitter- ness or aroma. (4) Indian bdellium, probably identical with the Indian drug googul obtained in Sind and Baluchistan from B. Mukul and B. pubesccns. Hook, is of a dark reddish colour, has an acrid taste and an odour resembling cedar-wood, and softens in the hand. As met with in commerce true myrrh occurs in pieces of irregular size and shape, from $ in. to 2 or 3 in. in diameter, and of a reddish-brown colour. The transverse fracture has a resinous appearance with white streaks; the flavour is bitter and aromatic, and the odour characteristic. It consists of a mixture of resin, gum and essential oil, the resin being present to the extent of 25 to 40%, with 2§ to 8% of the oil, myrrhol, to which the odour is due. Myrrh has the properties of other substances which, like it, contain a volatile oil. Its only important application in medi- cine is as a carminative to lessen the griping caused by some purgatives such as aloes. The volatile oils have for centuries been regarded as of value in disorders of the reproductive organs, and the reputation of myrrh in this connexion is simply a survival of this ancient but ill-founded belief. MYRTLE. The /iupros of the Greeks, the myrtus of the Romans, and the myrtle, Myrtus communis (see fig.), of botanists, as now found growing wild in many parts of the Mediterranean region, doubtless all belong to one and the same species. It is a low-growing, evergreen shrub, with opposite leaves, varying in I Myrtle (Myrtus communis), \ nat. size. 1. Vertical section of flower, 3. Berry, enlarged. enlarged. 4. Seed with contained embryo, 2. Plan of flower in horizontal e, much enlarged. plane. dimensions, but always small, simple, da[k-green, thick in tex- ture, and studded with numerous receptacles for oil. When the leaf is held up to the light it appears as if perforated with pin- 1 Liber quotidianus contra-rotulaloris garderobae Edw. I. (London, PP, xxxii. and 27. holes owing to the translucency of these oil-cysts. The fragrance of the plant depends upon the presence of this oil. Another peculiarity of the myrtle is the existence of a prominent vein running round the leaf within the margin. The flowers are borne on short stalks in the axils of the leaves. The flower-stalk is dilated at its upper end into a globose or ovoid receptacle enclosing the 2- to 4-partitioned ovary. From its margin pro- ceed the five sepals, and within them the five rounded, spoon- shaped, spreading, white petals. The stamens spring from the receptacle within the petals and are very numerous, each consist- ing of a slender white filament and a small yellow two-lobed anther. The style surmounting the ovary is slender, terminating in a small button-like stigma. The fruit is a purplish berry, consisting of the receptacle and the ovary blended into one succulent investment enclosing very numerous minute seeds. The embryo-plant within the seed is usually curved. In cultiva- tion many varieties are known, dependent on variations in the size and shape of the leaves, the presence of so-called double flowers, &c. The typical species is quite hardy in the south of England. The Chilean species, M. Ugni, a shrub with ovate, dark green leaves and white flowers succeeded by globular red or black glossy truit with a pleasant smell and taste, is a greenhouse shrub, hardy in south-west Britain. The common myrtle is the sole representative in Europe of a large genus which has its headquarters in extra-tropical South America, whilst other members are found in Australia and New Zealand. The genus Myrtus also gives its name to a very large natural order, Myrtaceae, the general floral structure of which is like that of the myrtle above described, but there are great differences in the nature of the fruit or seed-vessel according as it is dry or capsular, dehiscent, indehiscent or pulpy; minor differences exist according to the way in which the stamens are arranged. The aromatic oil to which the myrtle owes its fragrance, and its use in medicine and the arts, is a very general attribute of the order, as may be inferred from the fact that the order includes, amongst other genera, Eucalyptus (q.v.), Pimenta and Eugenia (cloves). Myrlol, a constituent of myrtle oil, has been given in doses of 5-15 minims on sugar or in capsules for pulmonary tuberculosis, fetid bronchitis, bronchiectasis, and similar conditions. It appears to lessen expectoration in such cases. The leaves of Myrtus chekan are aromatic and expectorant, and have been used in chronic bronchitis. MYSIA, the district of N.W. Asia Minor in ancient times inhabited by the Mysi. It was bounded by Lydia and Phrygia on the S., by Bithynia on the N.E., and by the Propontis and Aegean Sea on the N. and W. But its precise limits are difficult to assign, the Phrygian frontier being vague and fluctuating, while in the north-west the Troad was sometimes included in Mysia, sometimes not. Generally speaking, the northern portion was known as Mysia Minor or Hellespontica and the southern as Major or Pergamene. The chief physical features of Mysia (considered apart from that of the Troad) are the two mountain-chains, Olympus (7600 ft.) in the north and Temnus in the south, which for some distance separates Mysia from Lydia, and is afterwards prolonged through Mysia to the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Adramyttium. The only considerable rivers are the Macestus and its tributary the Rhyndacus in the northern part of the province, both of which rise in Phrygia, and, after diverging widely through Mysia, unite their waters below the lake of Apollonia about 15 m. from the Propontis. The Calcus in the south rises in Temnus, and from thence flows westward to the Aegean Sea, passing within a few miles of Pergamum. In the northern portion of the province are two considerable lakes, Artynia or Apolloniatis (Abulliont Geul), and Aphnitis (Maniyas Geul), which discharge their waters into the Macestus from the east and west respectively. The most important cities were Pergamum (q.v.) in the valley of the Calcus, and Cyzicus (q.v.) on the Propontis. But the whole sea-coast was studded with Greek towns, several of which were places of considerable importance; thus the northern portion included Parium, Lampsacus and Abydos, and the southern n6 MYSLOWITZ— MYSORE Assus, Adramyttium, and farther south, on the Elaitic Gulf, Elaea, Myrina and Cyme. Ancient writers agree in describing the Mysians as a distinct people, like the Lydians and Phrygians, though they never appear in history as an independent nation. It appears from Herodotus and Strabo that they were kindred with the Lydians and Carians, a fact attested by their common participation in the sacred rites at the great temple of Zeus at Labranda, as well as by the statement of the historian Xanthus of Lydia that their language was a mixture of Lydian and Phrygian. Strabo was of opinion that they came originally from Thrace (cf. BITHYNIA), and were a branch of the same people as the Mysians or Moesians (see MOESIA) who dwelt on the Danube — a view not inconsistent with the preceding, as he considered the Phrygians and Lydians also as having migrated from Europe into Asia. According to a Carian tradition reported by Herodotus (i. 171) Lydus and Mysus were brothers of Car — an idea which also points to the belief in a common origin of the three nations. The Mysians appear in the list of the Trojan allies in Homer and are repre- sented as settled in the Cai'cus valley at the coming of Telephus to Pergamum; but nothing else is known of their early history. The story told by Herodotus (vii. 20) of their having invaded Europe in conjunction with the Teucrians before the Trojan War is probably a fiction; and the first historical fact we learn is their subjugation, together with all the surrounding nations, by Lydian Croesus. After the fall of the Lydian monarchy they remained under the Persian Empire until its overthrow by Alexander. After his death they were annexed to the Syrian monarchy, of which they continued to form a part until the defeat of Antiochus the Great (too B.C.), after which they were trans- ferred by the Romans to the dominion of Eumenesof Pergamum. After the extinction of the Pergamenian dynasty (130 B.C.) Mysia became a part of the Roman province of Asia, and from this time disappears from history. The inhabitants probably became gradually Hellenized, but none of the towns of the interior, except Pergamum, ever attained to any importance. See C. Texier, Asie mineure (Paris, 1839); W. J. Hamilton, Researches (London, 1842); J. A. R. Munro in Geogr. Journal (1897, Hellespontica) ; W. von Diest, Petermanns Mitth. (Erganzungsheft 94; Gotha, 1889; Pergamene). (F. W. HA.) MYSLOWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia. Pop. (1905), 15,845. It lies on the navigable Przemsa, across which an iron bridge leads to the Polish town of Modr- zejow, 120 m. S.E. from Breslau by rail, and an important junction of lines to Oswiecim-Lemberg and Vienna. It contains a Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches, a palace and a gymnasium, and other schools. Extensive coal-mines are worked, and among its other industries are flax-spinning and brick-making. It became a town in 1857. See Lustig, Geschichte von Myslowitz (Myslowitz, 1867). MYSORE, a native state of southern India, almost surrounded by the Madras presidency, but in political relations with the governor-general. It is naturally divided into two regions of distinct character — the hill country called the Malnad, on the west, and the more open country known as the Maidan, compris- ing the greater part of the state, where the wide-spreading valleys and plains are covered with villages and populous towns. The drainage of the country, with a slight exception, finds its way into the Bay of Bengal, and is divisible into three great river systems — that of the Kistna on the north, the Cauvery on the south, and the Northern and Southern Pennar and Palar on the east. Owing to either rocky or shallow beds none of the Mysore rivers is navigable, but some are utilized for floating down timber at certain seasons. The main streams, especially the Cauvery and its tributaries, support an extensive system of irrigation by means of channels drawn from immense dams (anicuts), which retain the water at a high level and permit only the overflow to pass down stream. The streams which gather from the hill-sides and fertilize the valleys are embanked at every favourable point in such a manner as to form a series of reservoirs or tanks, the outflow from one at a higher level supply- ing the next lower, and so on, all down the course of the stream at short intervals. These tanks, varying in size from small ponds to extensive lakes, are dispersed throughout the country to the number of 20,000; the largest is the Sulekere lake, 40 m. in circumference. Mysore is perhaps the most prosperous native state in India. Situated on a healthy plateau, it receives the benefit of both the south-west and north-east monsoons, a natural advantage which, in conjunction with its irrigation system, has brought to Mysore a larger degree of immunity from famine than almost any other internal tract of India (always excepting the great calamity of 1876-1877, when one-fourth of the population are believed to have perished). Coffee, sandal-wood, silk, gold and ivory are among the chief products. The famous Kolar gold-fields are worked by electric power, which is conveyed for a distance of 92 m. from the Cauvery Falls. This was the first electric power scheme of magnitude in Asia. A long period of administration by British officers led to the introduction of a system based on British models, which has been maintained under a series of exceptionally able native ministers, and the state can boast of public works, hospitals, research laboratories, &c., unsurpassed in India. The total area of the state is 29,433 sq. m., subdivided into 8 districts, namely: Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur, Mysore, Hassan, Kadur, Shimoga and Chitaldrug. Pop. (1901), 5,539,399, showing an increase of 18% between 1881 and 1891, and of 12% between 1891 and 1901. The proportion of Hindus (92-1%) is larger than in any province of India, showing how ineffectual was the persecution of Hyder and Tippoo. The Christians (apart from native converts, who are chiefly Roman Catholics) largely consist of the garrison at Bangalore, the families of military pensioners at the same town, coffee- planters and gold-miners. The finances of the state have been very successfully managed under native rule, assisted by large profits from railways and gold-mines. The revenue amounts to about £1,400,000, of which nearly half is derived from land. In accordance with the " instrument of transfer," Mysore pays to the British government a tribute of £234,000, as contribution to military defence; but the full amount was not exacted until 1896. The state maintains a military force, consisting of two regiments of silladar cavalry and three bat- talions of infantry — total, about 2800 men; and also a regiment of imperial service lancers, with a transport corps. An interest- ing political experiment has been made, in the constitution of a representative assembly, composed of 350 representatives of all classes of the community, who meet annually to hear an account of the state administration for the previous year. The assembly has no power to enact laws, to vote supplies, or to pass any resolution binding upon the executive. But it gives to the leading men of the districts a pleasant opportunity of visiting the capital, and to a limited extent brings the force of public opinion to bear upon the minister. Since 1891 this representa- tive assembly has been elected by local boards and other public bodies. In the earliest historical times the northern part of Mysore was held by the Kadamba dynasty, whose capital, Banawasi, is mentioned by Ptolemy; they reigned with more or less splendour during fourteen centuries, though latterly they became feuda- tories of the Chalukyas. The Cheras were contemporary with the Kadambas, and governed the southern part of Mysore till they were subverted by the Cholas in the 8th century. Another ancient race, the Pallavas, held a small portion of the eastern side of Mysore, but were overcome by the Chalukyas in the 7th cen- tury. These were overthrown in the 1 2th century by the Ballalas (Hoysalas), an enterprising and warlike race professing the Jain faith. They ruled over the greater part of Mysore, and portions ' of the modern districts of Coimbatore, Salem and Dharwar, with their capital at Dwarasamudra (the modern Halebid); but in 1310 the Ballala king, was captured by Malik Kafur, the general of Ala-ud-din; and seventeen years later the town was entirely destroyed by another force sent by Mahommed Tughlak. After the subversion of the Ballala dynasty, a new and powerful Hindu sovereignty arose at Vijayanagar on the Tungabhadra. MYSORE— MYSTERY 117 In 1565 a confederation of the Mahommedan kingdoms de- feated the Vijayanagar sovereign at the battle of Talikota; and his descendants ultimately became extinct as a ruling house. During the feeble reign of the last king, the petty local chiefs (palegars) asserted their independence. The most important of these was the wcdeyar of Mysore, who in 1610 seized the fort of Seringapatam, and so laid the foundation of the present state. His fourth successor, Chikka Deva Raja, during a reign of 34 years, made his kingdom one of the most powerful in southern India. In the middle of the i8th century the famous Mahommedan adventurer Hyder AH usurped the throne, and by his military prowess made himself one of the most powerful princes of India. His dynasty, however, was as brief as it was brilliant, and ended with the defeat and death of his son Tippoo at Seringapatam in 1799. A representative of. the ancient Hindu line was then replaced on the throne. This prince, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, was only five years old, and until he came of age in 1811 the state was under the administration of Purnaiya, the Brahman minister of Hyder and Tippoo. When Krishnaraja took over the management of his state he received an orderly and contented principality with a surplus of two crores of rupees. Within twenty years he had driven his subjects into rebellion and involved himself and his state in heavy debt. The British government therefore assumed the administration in 1831, and placed it in the hands of com- missioners. In 1862 no less than 88 lakhs of state debts and of the maharaja's own liabilities had been liquidated; the entire administration had been reformed, a revised system of land revenue introduced, and many public works executed. The maharaja therefore pressed his claims to a restoration of his powers, but the British government refused the application as incompatible with the true interests of the people of Mysore, and as not justified by any treaty obligation. In the same year Chamarajendra Wodeyar, afterwards maharaja, was born of the Bettada Kote branch of the ruling house; and in June 1865 Maharaja Krishnaraja adopted him as his son and successor, although he had been informed that no adoption could be recognized except to his own private property, already once more heavily weighted with private debts. In 1867 the policy of government underwent a change; it was determined to secure the continuance of native rule in Mysore, by acknowledging the adoption upon certain conditions which would secure to the people the continued benefits of good administration enjoyed by them under British control. The old maharaja died on the 27th of March 1868, and Chamarajendra Wodeyar was publicly installed as the future ruler of Mysore on the 23rd of September 1868. His education was taken in hand, abuses which had grown up in the palace establishment were reformed, the late maharaja's debts were again paid off, and the whole internal administration perfected in every branch during the minority. On the 2$th of March 1881 Maharaja Chamarajendra, having attained the age of 1 8 years, was publicly entrusted with the administration of the state. He made over to the British government, with full jurisdiction, a small tract of land at Bangalore, forming the " civil and military station," and received in return the island of Seringapatam. But the most important incident of the change was the signing of the " instrument of transfer," by which the young maharaja, for himself and his successors, undertook to perform the conditions imposed upon him. To that agree- ment the maharaja steadfastly adhered during his reign, and the instrument is a landmark in the history of British relations with the protected states of India. The maharaja's first minister was Ranga Charlu, who had been trained in the British administration of Mysore. He signalized the restoration of native rule by creating the representative assembly. In 1883 Sheshadri Aiyar succeeded Ranga Charlu, and to him Mysore is indebted for the extension of railways and schemes of irrigation, the development of the Kolar goldfields, and the maintenance of the high standard of its administration. The maharaja died at Calcutta on the 28th of December 1894. His eldest son, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, born in 1884, succeeded him, and his widow, Maharani Vanivilas, was appointed regent, until in 1902 the maharaja was formally invested with full powers by the viceroy in person. See B. L. Rice, Mysore (2nd ed., Bangalore, 1897); Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908). MYSORE, capital of the state of Mysore, India, 10 m. S.W. of Seringapatam on the Mysore State railway. Pop. (1901), 68,111. The city, which is spread over an area of about 7! sq. m., has its nucleus at the foot of the Chamundi hill, in a valley formed by two parallel ridges running north and south. The fort stands in the south of the town, forming a quarter by itself; the ground- plan is quadrangular, each of the sides being about 450 yds. long. The old palace of the maharaja within the fort, built in an extravagant style of Hindu architecture, was partly destroyed by fire in 1897, whereupon a new palace was built on the same site. The principal object of interest in the old palace was the throne, which is said to have been presented to Chikka Deva Raj by the emperor Aurangzeb. The houses of the European residents are for the most part to the east of the town. The residency or government house was built in 1805. The building afterwards used for the district offices was originally built by Colonel Wellesley (duke of Wellington) for his own occupation. The domed building for the public offices in Gordon Park, the Maharaja's College, the Victoria Jubilee Institute, and the law courts are conspicuous. Mysore, though the dynastic capital of the state, was superseded by Seringapatam as the seat of the court from 1610 to 1799, and in 1831, on the British occupation, the seat of administration was removed to Bangalore. MYSTERY (Gr. nwn-ripiov, from juwmjs, an initiate, tiiitiv, to shut the mouth), a general English term for what is secret and excites wonder, derived from the religious sense (see below). It is not to be confounded with the other old word " mystery," or more properly " mistery," meaning a trade or handicraft (Lat. ministerium, Fr. metier). For the medieval plays, called mysteries, see DRAMA; they were so called (Skeat) because acted by craftsmen. Greek Mysteries. — It is important to obtain a clear conception of the exact significance of the Greek term fivvrliptov, which is often associated and at times appears synonymous with the words Tf\trri, opyia. We may interpret " mystery " in its original Greek meaning as a " secret " worship, to which only certain specially prepared people — oi /iV7)0ejr« — were admitted after a special period of purification or other preliminary probation, and of which the ritual was so important and perilous that the " catechumen " needed a hierophant or expounder to guide him aright. In the ordinary public worship of the state or the private worship of the household the sacrifice with the prayer was the chief act of the ceremony; in the " mysterion " something other than a sacrifice was of the essence of the rite; something was shown to the eyes of the initiated, the mystery was a 5pS.ua fj.vffri.K6v, and 8pav and dprjo-fioffuvr] are verbal terms expressive of the mystic act. We have an interesting account given us by . Theo Smyrnaeus1 of the various elements and moments of the normal mystic ceremony: first is the KaBapfjibs or preliminary purification; secondly, the TeXerijs irapadoffK, the mystic com- munication which probably included some kind of X&yos, a sacred exegesis or exhortation; thirdly, the tTroirreta or the revelation to sight of certain holy things, which is the central point of the whole; fourthly, the crowning with the garland, which is henceforth the badge of the privileged; and finally, that which is the end and object of all this, the happiness that arises from the friendship or communion with the deity. This exposition is probably applicable to the Greek mysteries in general, though it may well have been derived from his know- ledge of the Eleusinian. We may supplement it by a statement of Lucian's that " no mystery was ever celebrated without dancing " (De saltat. 15), which means that it was in some sense a religious drama, ancient Greek dancing being generally mimetic, and represented some Up6s Xo^os or sacred story as the theme of a mystery-play. Before we approach the problem as to the content of the mysteries, we may naturally raise the question why certain 1 De ulil. math., Herscher, p. 15. u8 MYSTERY ancient cults in Greece were mystic, others open and public. An explanation often offered is that the mystic cults are the Pelasgic or pre-Hellenic and that the conquered populations desired to shroud their religious ceremonies from the profane eyes of the invaders. But we should then expect to find them administered chiefly by slaves and the lower population; on the contrary they are generally in the hands of the noblest families, and the evidence that slaves possessed in any of them the right of initiation is only slight. Nor does the explanation in other respects fit the facts at all. The deities who are worshipped with mystic rites have in most cases Hellenic names and do not all belong to the earliest stratum of Hellenic religion. Besides those of Demeter, by far the most numerous in the Hellenic world, we have record of the mysteries of Ge at Phlye in Attica, of Aglauros and the Charities at Athens, of Hecate at Aegina; a shrine of Artemis Mucn'a on the road between Sparta and Arcadia points to a mystic cult of this goddess, and we can infer the existence of a similar worship of Themis. Now these are either various forms of the earth-goddess, or are related closely to her, being powers that we call " chthonian," associated with the world below, the realm of the dead. We may surmise then that the mystic setting of a cult arose in many cases from the dread of the religious miasma which emanated from the nether world and which suggested a prior ritual of purification as neces- sary to safeguard the person before approaching the holy presence or handling certain holy objects. This would explain the necessity of mysteries in the worship of Dionysus also, the Cretan Zagreus, Trophonius at Lebadeia, Palaemon-Melicertes on the Isthmus of Corinth. They might also be necessary for those who desired communion with the deified ancestor or hero, and thus we hear of the mysteries of Dryops at Asine, of Antinoiis the favourite of Hadrian at Mantineia. Again, where there was hope or promise that the mortal should by communion be able to attain temporarily to divinity, so hazardous an experiment would be safeguarded by special preparation, secrecy and mystic ritual; and this may have been the prime motive of the institution of the Attis-Cybele mystery. (See GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS.) For the student of Hellenism, the Eleusinian and Orphic ceremonies are of paramount importance; the Samothracian, which vied with these in attractiveness for the later Hellenic world, were not Hellenic in origin, nor wholly hellenized in char- acter, and cannot be considered in an article of this compass. As regards the Eleusinia, we are in a better position for the investigation of them than our predecessors were; for the modern methods of comparative religion and anthropology have at least taught us to asu. the right questions and to apply relevant hypotheses; archaeology, the study of vases, excavations on the site, yielding an ever-increasing hoard of inscriptions, have taught us much concerning the external organization of the mysteries, and have shown us the beautiful figures of the deities as they appeared to the eye or to the mental vision of the initiated. As regards the inner content, the secret of the mystic celebra- tion, it is in the highest degree unlikely that Greek inscriptions or art would ever reveal it; the Eleusinian scenes that appear on Attic vases of about the sth century cannot be supposed to show us the heart of the mystery, for such sacrilegious rashness would be dangerous for the vase-painter. If we are to discover it, we must turn to the ancient literary records. These must be handled with extreme caution and a more careful scrutiny than is often applied. We must not expect full enlightenment from the Pagan writers, who convey to us indeed the poetry and the glow of this fascinating ritual, and who attest the deep and puri- fying influence that it exercised upon the religious temperament, but who are not likely to tell us more. It is to the Christian Fathers we must turn for more esoteric knowledge, for they would be withheld by no scruple from revealing what they knew. But we cannot always believe that they knew much, for only those who, like Clement and Arnobius, had been Pagans in their youth, could ever have been initiated. Many of them uncriti- cally confuse in the same context »nd in one sweeping verdict of condemnation Orphic, Phrygian-Sabazian and Attis-Mysteries with the Eleusinian; and we ought not too lightly to infer that these were actually confused and blended at Eleusis. We must also be on our guard against supposing that when Pagan or Christian writers refer vaguely to " mysteria," they always have the Eleusinian in their mind. The questions that the critical analysis of all the evidence may hope to solve are mainly these: (a) What do we know or what can we infer concerning the personality of the deities to whom the Eleusinian mysteries were originally consecrated, and were new figures admitted at a later period ? (b) When was the mystery taken over by Athens and opened to all Hellas, and what was the state-organization provided ? (c) What was the inner significance, essential content or purport of the Eleusinia, and what was the source of their great influence on Hellas? (d) Can we attribute any ethical value to them, and did they strongly impress the popular belief in immortality? Limits of space allow us only to adumbrate the results that research on the lines of these questions has hitherto yielded. The paramount divine personalities of the mystery were in the earliest period of which we have literary record, the mother and the daughter, Demeter and Kore, the latter being never styled Persephone in the official language of Eleusis; while the third figure, the god of the lower world known by the euphemistic names of Pluto (Plouton) and at one time Eubouleus, the ravisher and the husband, is an accessory personage, comparatively in the background. This is the conclusion naturally drawn from the Homeric hymn to Demeter, a composition of great ritualistic value, probably of the 7th century B.C., which describes the abduction of the daughter, the sorrow and search of the mother, her sitting by the sacred well, the drinking of the KVKf&v or sacred cup and the legend of the pomegranate. An ancient hymn of Pamphos, from which Pausanias freely quotes and which he regards as genuine,1 appears to have told much the same story in much the same way. As far as we can say, then, the mother and daughter were there in possession at the very beginning. The other pair of divinities known as 6 debs ^ Ota, that appear in a 5th-century inscription and on two dedicatory reliefs found at Eleusis, have been supposed to descend from an aboriginal period of Eleusinian religion when deities were nameless, and when a peaceful pair of earth-divinities, male and female, were worshipped by the rustic community, before the earth-goddess had pluralized herself as Demeter and Kore, and before the story of the madre dolorosa and the lost daughter had arisen.2 But for various reasons the contrary view is more probable, that 6 0«6j and 17 Oea are later cult-titles of the married pair Pluto-Cora (Plouton-Kore), the personal names being omitted from that feeling of reverential shyness which was specially timid in regard to the sacred names of the deities of the underworld. And it is a fairly familiar phenomenon in Greek religion that two separate titles of the same divinity engender two distinct cults. The question as to the part played by Dionysus in the Eleusinia is important. Some scholars, like M. Foucart, have supposed that he belonged from the beginning to the inner circle of the mystery; others that he forced his way in at a somewhat later period owing to the great influence of the Orphic sects who captured the stronghold of Attic religion and engrafted the Orphic-Sabazian Up6s Xiyyoj, the story of the incestuous union of Dionysus-Sabazius with Demeter-Kore, and of the death and rendering of Zagreus, upon the primitive Eleusinian faith. A saner and more careful criticism rejects this view. There is no genuine trace discovered as yet in the inner circle of the mysteries of any characteristically Orphic doctrine; the names of Zagreus and Phanes are nowhere heard, the legend of Zagreus and the death of Dionysus are not known to have been mentioned there. Nor is there any print within or in the precincts of the rt\wriipiov: the hall of the Muorot, of the footsteps of the Phrygian deities, Cybele, Attis, Sabazius. 'i; 38, 3: i- 39. i. 1 See Dittenberger, Sylloge, 13; Corp. inscr. all. 2, 1620 c, 3, 1109; Ephem. archaiol. (1886), *li>. 3; Hcberdey in Festschrift fur Benndorf, p. 3, Taf. 4; Von Prott in Athen. Mittheil. (1899), p. 262. MYSTERY nq The exact relation of Dionysus to the mysteries involves the question as to the divine personage called lacchus; who and what was lacchus? Strabo (p. 468), who is a poor authority on such matters, describes him as " the daemon of Demeter, the founder of the leader of the mysteries." More important is it to note that " lacchus " is unknown to the author of the Homeric hymn, and that the first literary notice of him occurs in the well-known passage of Herodotus (viii. 65), who describes the procession of the mystae as moving along the sacred way from Athens to Eleusis and as raising the cry "latcxf. We find lacchus the theme of a glowing invocation in an Aristophanic Ode (Frogs, 324-398), and described as a beautiful " young god "; but he is first explicitly identified with Dionysus in the beautiful ode of Sophocles' Antigone (1119); and that this was in accord with the popular ritualistic lore is proved by the statement of the scholiast on Aristophanes (Frogs, 482) that the people at the Lenaea, the winter-festival of Dionysus, responded to the command of " Invoke the god! " with the invocation " Hail, lacchus, son of Semele, thou giver of wealth!" We are sure, then, that in the high tide of the Attic religious history lacchus was the youthful Dionysus, a name of the great god peculiar to Attic cult; and this is all that here concerns us to know. We can now answer the question raised above. This youthful Attic Dionysus has his home at Athens; he accompanies his votaries along the sacred way, filling their souls with the exalta- tion and ecstasy of the Dionysiac spirit ; but at Eleusis he had no temple, altar or abiding home; he comes as a visitor and departs. His image may have been carried into the Hall of the Mysteries, but whether it played any part there in a passion-play we do not know. That he was a primary figure of the essential mystery is hard to believe, for we find no traces of his name in the other Greek communities that at an early period had insti- tuted mysteries on the Eleusinian model. Apart from lacchus, Dionysus in his own name was powerful enough at Eleusis as in most other localities. And the votaries carried with them no doubt into the hall the Bacchic exaltation of the lacchus proces- sion and the nightly revel with the god that preceded the full initiation; many of them also may have belonged to the private Dionysiac sects and might be tempted to read a Dionysiac signifi- cance into much that was presented to them. But all this is conjecture. The interpretation of what was shown would natur- ally change somewhat with the changing sentiment of the ages; but the mother and the daughter, the stately and beautiful figures presented to us by the author of the homeric hymn, who says no word of Dionysus, are still found reigning paramount and supreme at Eleusis just before the Gothic invasion in the latter days of Paganism. Triptolemus the apostle of corn- culture, Eubouleus — originally a euphemistic name of the god of the under-world, " the giver of good counsel," conveying a hint of his oracular functions — these are accessory figures of Eleusinian cult and mythology that may have played some part in the great mystic drama that was enacted in the hall. The development and organization of the Eleusinia may now be briefly sketched. The legends concerning the initiation of Heracles and the Dioscuri preserve the record of the time when the mysteries were closed against all strangers, and were the privilege of the Eleusinians alone. Now the Homeric hymn in its obvious appeal to the whole of the Greek world to avail themselves of these mysteries gives us to suppose that they had already been thrown open to Hellas; and this momentous change, abolishing the old gentile barriers, may have naturally coincided with, or have resulted from, the fusion of Eleusis and Athens, an event of equal importance for politics and religion which we may place in the prehistoric period. The reign of Peisistratus was an era of architectural activity at Eleusis; but the construction of the /iuavTTis) , the high priest of the Eleusinia, whose function alone it was to " reveal the orgies," to show the sacred things, and who alone — or perhaps with his consort-priestess — could penetrate into the innermost shrine in the hall; an impres- sive figure, so sacred in person that no one could address him by his personal name, and bound, at one period at least, by a rule of celibacy. We hear also of two " hierophantides," female attendants on the older and younger goddesses. In fact, while the male priest predominates in this ritual, the women play a prominent part: as we should expect, considering that the sister-festival of the Thesmophoria was wholly in their hands. The other old priestly family was that of the " Kerykes," to whom the 5ayia and reveal its true significance (Arnob. Adv. nat. 5. 119); and Firmicus Maternus (De error., p. 84) attests that the Cretans of his own day celebrated a funeral festival in honour of Dionysus in which they enacted the life and the death of the god in a passion-play and " rent a living bull with their teeth." But the most speaking record of the aspirations and ideas of the Orphic mystic is preserved in the famous gold tablets found in tombs near Sybaris, one near Rome, and one in Crete. These have been frequently published and discussed; and here it is only possible to allude to the salient features that concern the general history of religion. They contain fragments of a sacred hymn that must have been in vogue at least as early as the 3rd century B.C., and which was inscribed in order to 4 The name 'Op&ets first occurs in Ibycus, Frag. 10: bvona.K.\vri>v 'OpTll>. MYSTICISM 123 be buried with the defunct, as an amulet that might protect him from the dangers of his journey through the under-world and open to him the gates of Paradise. The verses have the power of an incantation. The initiated soul proclaims its divine descent : " I am the son of Earth and Heaven " : " I am perishing with thirst, give me to drink of the waters of memory ": " I come from the pure ": " I have paid the penalty of unrighteousness ": " I have flown out of the weary, sorrowful circle of life." His 'reward is assured him: " O blessed and happy one, thou hast put off thy mortality and shall become divine." The strange formula ept<£os « ya\' tirtrov, "la kid fell into the milk," has been interpreted by Dieterich (Eine Mithras — Liturgie, p. 174) with great probability as alluding to a conception of Dionysus himself as tpluK, the divine kid, and to a ritual of milk-baptism in which the initiated was born again. We discern, then, in these mystic brotherhoods the germs of a high religion and the prevalence of conceptions that have played a great part in the religious history of Europe. And as late as the days of Plutarch they retained their power of consoling the afflicted (Consol. ad uxor., c. 10). The Phrygian-Sabazian mysteries, associated with Attis, Cybele and Sabazius, which invaded later Greece and early imperial Rome, were originally akin to these and contained many concepts in common with them. But their orgiastic ecstasy was more violent, and the psychical aberrations to which the votaries were prone through their passionate desire for divine communion were more dangerous. Emasculation was practised by the devotees, probably in order to assimilate themselves as far as possible to their goddess by abolishing the distinction of sex, and the high-priest himself bore the god's name. Or communion with the deity might be attained by the priest through the bath of blood in the taurobolion (q.v.), or by the gashing of the arm over the altar. A more questionable method which lent itself to obvious abuses, or at least to the imputation of indecency, was the simulation of a sacred marriage, in which the catechumen was corporeally united with the great goddess in her bridal chamber (Dieterich, op. cit. pp. 121-134). Prominent also in these Phrygian mysteries were the conception of rebirth and the belief, vividly impressed by solemn pageant and religious drama, in the death and resur- rection of the beloved Attis. The Hilaria in which these were represented fell about the time of our Easter; and Firmicus Maternus reluctantly confesses its resemblance to the Christian celebration.1 The Eleusinian mysteries are far more characteristic of the older Hellenic mind. These later rites breathe an Oriental spirit, and though their forms appear strange and distorted they have more in common with the subsequent religious phenomena of Christendom. And the Orphic doctrine may have even contributed something to the later European ideals of private and personal morality.2 LITERATURE. — For citation of passages in classical literature bearing on Greek mysteries in general see Lobeck's Aglaophamus (1829) ; and the collection of material for Demeter mysteries in L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States (1906), iii. 343-367. For general theory and discussion see Dr Jevons, Introduction to the Study of Religton; Farnell, Cults of the Creek States, iii. 127-213; Dyer's The Gods of Greece (1891), en. v. ; M. P. Foucart, Les Grands mysteres d'Eleusis (1900); Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (1887), pp. 264—276 ; Goblet d'Alviella, Eleusinia (1903). See further articles DIONYSUS; GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS; DEMETER. (L. R. F.) MYSTICISM (from GT. pbtu>, to shut the eyes; /U^TJJS, one initiated into the mysteries), a phase of thought, or rather perhaps of feeling, which from its very nature is hardly suscep- tible of exact definition. It appears in connexion with the endeavour of the human mind to grasp the divine essence or the ultimate reality of things, and to enjoy the blessedness of actual communion with the Highest. The first is the philosophic side of mysticism; the second, its religious side. The first effort is theoretical or speculative; the second, practical. The thought that is most intensely present with the mystic is that 1 Farnell, Cults, iii. 299-302. 1 See Archivfiir Religionswiss. (1906), article by Salomon Reinach. of a supreme, all-pervading, and indwelling power, in whom all things are one. Hence the speculative utterances of mysticism are always more or less pantheistic in character. On the practical side, mysticism maintains the possibility of direct in- tercourse with this Being of beings — intercourse, not through any external media such as an historical revelation, oracles, answers to prayer, and the like, but by a species of ecstatic transfusion or identification, in which the individual becomes in very truth " partaker of the divine nature." God ceases to be an object to him and becomes an experience. In the writings of the mystics, ingenuity exhausts itself in the invention of phrases to express the closeness of this union. Mysticism differs, there- fore, from ordinary pantheism in that its inmost motive is religious; but, whereas religion is ordinarily occupied with a practical problem and develops its theory in an ethical refer- ence, mysticism displays a predominatingly speculative bent, starting from the divine nature rather than from man and his surroundings, taking the symbolism of religious feeling as literally or metaphysically true, and straining after the present realization of an ineffable union. The union which sound religious teaching represents as realized in the submission of the will and the ethical harmony of the whole life is then reduced to a passive experience, to something which comes and goes in time, and which may be of only momentary duration. Mysticism, it will be seen, is not a name applicable to any particular system. It may be the outgrowth of many differing modes of thought and feeling. Most frequently it appears historically, in relation to some definite system of belief, as a reaction of the spirit against the letter. When a religion begins to ossify into a system of formulas and observances, those who protest in the name of heart-religion are not unfrequently known by the name of mystics. At times they merely bring into prominence again the ever-fresh fact of personal religious experience; at other times mysticism develops itself as a powerful solvent of definite dogmas. A review of the historical appearances of mysticism will serve to show how far the above characteristics are to be found, separately or in combination, in its different phases. In the East, mysticism is not so much a specific phenomenon as a natural deduction from the dominant philosophic systems, and the normal expression of religious feeling in the lands in which it appears. Brahmanic pantheism and Buddhistic nihilism alike teach the unreality of the seeming world, and preach mystical absorption as the highest goal; in both, the sense of the worth of human person- ality is lost. India consequently has always been the fertile mother of practical mystics and devotees. The climate itself encourages to passivity, and the very luxuriance of vegetable and animal life tends to blunt the feeling of the value of life. Silent contemplation and the total deadening of consciousness by perseverance for years in unnatural attitudes are among the commonest forms assumed by this mystical asceticism. But the most revolting methods of self-torture and self-destruction are also practised as a means of rising in sanctity. The sense of sin can hardly be said to enter into these exercises — that is, they are not undertaken as penance for personal transgression. They are a despite done to the principle of individual or separate existence. The so-called mysticism of the Persian Sufis is less intense and practical, more airy and literary in character. Sufism (q.v.) appears in the gth century among the Mahommedans of Persia as a kind of reaction against the rigid monotheism and. formalism of Islam. It is doubtless to be regarded as a revival of ancient habits of thought and feeling among a people who had adopted the Koran, not by affinity, but by compulsion. Persian literature after that dace, and especially Persian poetry, is full of an ardent natural pantheism, in which a mystic apprehension of the unity and divinity of all things heightens the delight in natural and in human beauty. Such is the poetry of Hafiz and Saadi, whose verses are chiefly devoted to the praises of wine and women. Even the most licentious of these have been fitted by Mahommedan theologians with a mystical interpretation. 124 MYSTICISM The delights of love are made to stand for the raptures of union with the divine, the tavern symbolizes an oratory, and intoxica- tion is the bewilderment of sense before the surpassing vision. Very often, if not most frequently, it cannot be doubted that the occult religious significance depends on an artificial exegesis; but there are also poems of Hafiz, Saadi, and other writers, religious in their first intentions. These are unequivo- cally pantheistic in tone, and the desire of the soul to escape and rest with God is expressed with all the fervour of Eastern poetry. This speculative mood, in which nature and beauty and earthly satisfaction appear as a vain show, is the counterpart of the former mood of sensuous enjoyment. For opposite reasons, neither the Greek nor the Jewish mind lent itself readily to mysticism: the Greek, because of its clear and sunny naturalism; the Jewish, because of its rigid monotheism and its turn towards worldly realism and statutory observance. It is only with the exhaustion of Greek and Jewish civilization that mysticism becomes a prominent factor in Western thought. It appears, therefore, contemporaneously with Christianity, and is a sign of the world-weariness and deep religious need that mark the decay of the old world. Whereas Plato's main problem had been the organization of the perfect state, and Aristotle's intellect had ranged with fresh interest over all departments of the knowable, political speculation had become a mockery with the extinction of free political life, and know- ledge as such had lost its freshness for the Greeks of the Roman Empire. Knowledge is nothing to these men if it does not show them the infinite reality which is able to fill the aching void within. Accordingly, the last age of Greek philosophy is theosophical in character, and its ultimate end is a practical satisfaction. Neoplatonism seeks this in the ecstatic intuition of the ineffable One. The systematic theosophy of Plotinus and his successors does not belong to the present article, except so far as it is the presupposition of their mysticism; but, inas- much as the mysticism of the medieval Church is directly derived from Neoplatonism through the speculations of the pseudo-Dionysius, Neoplatonic mysticism fills an important section in any historical review of the subject. Neoplatonism owes its form to Plato, but its underlying motive is the widespread feeling of self-despair and the longing for divine illumination characteristic of the age niatonism m which it appears. Before the rise of Neoplaton- ism proper we meet with various mystical or semi- mystical expressions of the same religious craving. The contemplative asceticism of the Essenes of Judaea may be mentioned, and, somewhat later, the life of the Therapeutae on the shores of Lake Moeris. In Philo, Alexandrian Judaism had already seized upon Plato as " the Attic Moses," and done its best to combine his speculations with the teaching of his Jewish prototype. Philo's God is described in terms of absolute transcendency; his doctrine of the Logos or Divine Sophia is a theistical transformation of the Platonic world of ideas; his allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament represents the spiritualistic dissolution of historical Judaism. Philo's ethical ideal is renunciation, contemplation, complete surrender to the divine influence. Apollonius of Tyana and the so-called Neopythagoreans drew similar ethical consequences from their eclectic study of Plato. Wonder-workers like Alexander the Paphlagonian exhibit the grosser side of the longing for spiritual communion. The traits common to Neoplatonism and all these speculations are well summed up by Zeller (Philos. der Griechen, iii. 2. 214) as consisting in: " (i) the dualistic opposition of the divine and the earthly; (2) an abstract con- ception of God, excluding all knowledge of the divine nature; (3) contempt for the world of the senses, on the ground of the Platonic doctrines of matter and of the descent of the soul from a superior world into the body; (4) the theory of intermediate potencies or beings, through whom God acts upon the world of phenomena; (5) the requirement of an ascetic self-emancipa- tion from the bondage of sense and faith in a higher revelation to man when in a state called enthusiasm." Neoplatonism appears in the first half of the 3rd century, and has its greatest representative in Plotinus. He develops the Platonic philosophy into an elaborate system by means of the doctrine of emanation. The One, the Good, and the Idea of the Good were identical in Plato's mind, and the Good was therefore not deprived of intelligible essence. It was not separated from the world of ideas, of which it was represented as either the crown or the sum. By Plotinus, on the contrary, the One is explicitly exalted above the vow and the " ideas "; it trans- cends existence altogether (eirexeiva rtjs owias), and is not- cognizable by reason. Remaining itself in repose, it rays out, as it were, from its own fullness an image of itself, which is called vovs, and which constitutes the system of ideas of the intelligible world. The soul is in turn the image or product of the coOj, and the soul by its motion begets corporeal matter. The soul thus faces two ways — towards the vovs, from which it springs, and towards the material life, which is its own pioduct. Ethical endeavour consists in the repudiation of the sensible; material existence is itself estrangement from God. (Porphyry tells us that Plotinus was unwilling to name his parents or his birthplace, and seemed ashamed of being in the body.) Beyond the Ka0a.pri, Ennead., vi. 9. 8-9). But in our present state of existence the moments of this ecstatic union must be few and short; " I myself," says Plotinus simply, " have realized it but three times as yet, and Porphyry hitherto not once." It will be seen from the above that Neoplatonism is not mystical as regards the faculty by which it claims to apprehend philosophic truth. It is first of all a system of complete rationalism; it is assumed, in other words, that reason is capable of mapping out the whole system of things. But, inasmuch as a God is affirmed beyond reason, the mysticism becomes in a sense the necessary complement of the would-be all-embracing rationalism. The system culminates in a mystical act, and in the sequel, especially with lamblichus and the Syrian Neoplatonists, mystical practice tended more and more to overshadow the theoretical groundwork. It was probably about the end of the 5th century, just as ancient philosophy was dying out in the schools of Athens, that the speculative mysticism of Neoplatonism made a definite lodgment in Christian thought through the literary forgeries of the pseudo-Dionysius (see DIONYSIUS THE AREOPA- GITE). The doctrines of Christianity were by that time so firmly established that the Church could look upon a symbolical or mystical interpretation of them without anxiety. The author of the Theologia mystica and the other works ascribed to the Areopagite proceeds, therefore, to develop the doctrines of Proclus with very little modification into a system of esoteric Christianity. God is the nameless and supra-essential One, elevated above goodness itself. Hence " negative theology," which ascends from the creature to God by dropping one after another every determinate predicate, leads us nearest to the truth. The return to God (^voxns, 0kohQ0ttes lands on the other. They formed no exclusive faunae," sect. They often took opposite sides in politics and they also differed in the type of their religious life; but they uniformly desired to strengthen one another in living intercourse with God. Among them chiefly the followers of Eckhart were to be found. Such were Heinrich Suso of Con- stance (1295-1366) and JohannTauler of Strassburg (1300-1361), the two most celebrated of his immediate disciples. Nicolas of Basel, the mysterious layman from whose visit Tauler dates his true religious life, seems to have been the chief organizing force among the Gottesfreunde. The society counted many members among the pious women in the convents of southern Germany. Such were Christina Ebner of Engelthal near Nuremberg, and Margaretha Ebner of Medingen in Swabia. Laymen also belonged to it, like Hermann of Fritzlar and Rulman Merswin, the rich banker of Strassburg (author of a mystical work, Buck der neun Felsen, on the nine rocks or up wards steps of contemplation). It was doubtless one of the Friends who sent forth anonymously from the house of the Teutonic Order in Frankfort the famous handbook of mystical devotion called Eine deutsche Theologie, first published in 1516 by Luther. Jan van Ruysbroeck (1294-1381), the father of mysticism in the Netherlands, stood in connexion with the Friends of God, and Tauler is said to have visited him in his seclusion at Groenendal (Vauvert, Griinthal) near Brussels. ay* He was decisively influenced by Eckhart, though there is no- ticeable occasionally a shrinking back from some of Eckhart's phraseology. Ruysbroeck's mysticism is more of a practical than a speculative cast. He is chiefly occupied with the means whereby the unio mystica is to be attained, whereas Eckhart dwells on the union as an ever-present fact, and dilates on its metaphysical implications. Towards the end of Ruysbroeck's life, in 1378, he was visited by the fervid lay-preacher Gerhard Groot (1340-1384), who was so impressed by the life of the com- munity at Groenendal that he conceived the idea of founding a Christian brotherhood, bound by no monastic vows, but living together in simplicity and piety with all things in common, after the apostolic pattern. This was the origin of the Brethren of the Common Lot (or Common Life). The first house of the Brethren was founded at Deventer by Gerhard Groot and his youthful friend Florentius Radewyn; and here Thomas a Kempis (q.v.) received his training. Similar brother-houses soon sprang up in different places throughout the Low Countries and Westphab'a, and even Saxony. It has been customary for Protestant writers to represent the mystics of Germany and Holland as precursors of the Reformation. In a sense this is true. But Mystics it would be false to say that these men protested aaa the Re- against the doctrines of the Church in the way the formation. Reformers felt themselves called upon to do. There is no sign that Tauler, for example, or Ruysbroeck, or Thomas a Kempis had felt the dogmatic teaching of the Church jar in any single point upon their religious consciousness. Never- theless, mysticism did prepare men in a very real way for a break with the traditional system. Mysticism instinctively recedes from formulas that have become stereotyped and mechanical. On the other hand its claim for spiritual freedom was soon to be found in opposition also to the Reformers. The wild doctrines of Thomas Munzer and the Zwickau prophets, merging eventually into the excesses of the Later Peasants' War and the doings of the Anabaptists in German Miinster, first roused Luther to the dangerous Mystics. possibilities of mysticism as a disintegrating force. He was MYSTICISM 127 also called upon to do battle for his principle against men like Caspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561) and Sebastian Franck (1500- 1545), the latter of whom developed a system of pantheistic mysticism, and went so far in his opposition to the letter as to declare the whole of the historical element in Scripture to be but a mythical representation of eternal truth. Valentin Weigel (1533-1588), who stands under manifold obligations to Franck, represents also the influence of the semi-mystical physical speculation that marked the transition from scholasticism to modern times. The final breakdown of scholasticism as a rationalized system of dogma may be seen in Nicolas (or Nicolaus) of Cusa (1401-1464), who distinguishes between the intelleclus and the discursively acting ratio almost precisely in the style of later distinctions between the reason and the understanding. The intellect combines .what the understanding separates ; hence Nicolas teaches the principle of the coincidentia contradictoriorum. If the results of the understanding go by the name of knowledge, then the higher teaching of the intellec- tual intuition may be called ignorance — ignorance, however, that is conscious of itself, docta ignorantia. " Intuitio," " specu- latio," " visio sine comprehensione," " comprehensio incom- prehensibilis," " mystica theologia," " tertius caelus," are some of the terms he applies to this knowledge above knowledge; but in the working out of his system he is remarkably free from extravagance. Nicolas's doctrines were of influence upon Giordano Bruno and other physical philosophers of the isth and 1 6th centuries. All these physical theories are blended with a mystical theosophy, of which the most remarkable example is, perhaps, the chemico-astrological speculations of Paracelsus (1493-1541). The influence of Nicolas of Cusa and Paracelsus mingled in Valentin Weigel with that of the Deutsche Theologie, Andreas Osiander, Schwenkfeld and Franck. Weigel, in turn, handed on these influences to Jakob Boehme (1575-1624), philosophus teutonicus, and father of the chief developments of theosophy in modern Germany (see BOEHME). Mysticism did not cease within the Catholic Church at the Reformation. In St Theresa (1515-1582) and John of the Cross other the counter-reformation can boast of saints second Forms at to none in the calendar for the austerity of their Mysticism, mortifications and the rapture of the visions to which they were admitted. But, as was to be expected, their mysticism moves in that comparatively narrow round, and consists simply in the heaping up of these sensuous experiences. The speculative character has entirely faded out of it, or rather has been crushed out by the tightness with which the directors of the Roman Church now held the reins of discipline. Their mysticism represents, therefore, no widening or spiritualizing of their theology; in all matters of belief they remain the docile children of their Church. The gloom and harshness of these Spanish mystics are absent from the tender, contemplative spirit of Francois de Sales (1567-1622); and in the quietism of Mme Guyon (1648-1717) and Miguel de Molinos (1627-1696) there is again a sufficient implication of mystical doctrine to rouse the suspicion of the ecclesiastical authorities. Quietism, name and thing, became the talk of all the world through the bitter and protracted controversy to which it gave rise between Fenelon and Bossuet. In the 1 7th century mysticism is represented in the philo- sophical field by the so-called Cambridge Platonists, and especially by Henry Mone (1614-1687), in whom the influence of the Kabbalah is combined with a species of christianized Neoplatonism. Pierre Poiret (1646-1719) exhibits a violent reaction against the mechanical philosophy of Descartes, and especially against its consequences in Spinoza. He was an ardent student of Tauler and Thomas a Kempis, and became an adherent of the quietistic doctrines of Mme Bourignon. His philosophical works emphasize the passivity of the reason. The first influence of Boehme was in the direction of an obscure religious mysticism. J. G. Gichtel (1638-1710), the first editor of his complete works, became the founder of a sect called the Angel-Brethren. All Boehme's works were translated into English in the time of the Commonwealth, and regular societies of Boehmenists were formed in England and Holland. Later in the century he was much studied by the members of the Philadelphian Society, John Pordage, Thomas Bromley, Jane Lead, and others. The mysticism of William Law (1686-1761) and of Louis Claude de Saint Martin in France (1743-1803), who were also students of Boehme, is of a much more elevated and spiritual type. The " Cherubic Wanderer," and other poems, of Johann Scheffler (1624-1677), known as Angelus Silesius, are more closely related in style and thought to Eckhart than to Boehme. The religiosity of the Quakers, with their doctrines of the " inner light " and the influence of the Spirit, has decided affinities with mysticism; and the autobiography of George Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the sect, proceeds throughout on the assumption of supernatural guidance. Stripped of its definitely miraculous character, the doctrine of the inner light may be regarded as the familiar mystical protest against for- malism, literalism, and scripture-worship. Swedenborg, though selected by Emerson in his Representative Men as the typical mystic, belongs rather to the history of spiritualism than to that of mysticism as understood in this article. He possesses the cool temperament of the man of science rather than the fervid Godward aspiration of the mystic proper; and the specu- lative impulse which lies at the root of this form of thought is almost entirely absent from his writings. Accordingly, his supernatural revelations resemble a course of lessons in celestial geography more than a description of the beatific vision. Philosophy since the end of the i8th century has frequently shown a tendency to diverge into mysticism. This has been espe- cially so in Germany. The term mysticism is indeed often extended by popular usage and philosophical partisanship to the whole activity of the post-Kantian idealists. In this usage the word would be equivalent to the more recent and scarcely less abused term, tran- scendentalism, and as such it is used even by a sympathetic writer like Carlyle; but this looseness of phraseology only serves to blur important distinctions. However absolute a philosopher's idealism may be, he is erroneously styled a mystic if he moves towards his conclusions only by the patient labour of the reason. Hegel there- fore, to take an instance, can no more fitly be classed as a mystic than Spinoza can. It would be much nearer the truth to take both as types of a thoroughgoing rationalism. In either case it is of course open to anyone to maintain that the apparent completeness of synthesis really rests on the subtle intrusion of elements of feeling into the rational process. But in that case it might be difficult to find a systematic philosopher who would escape the charge of mysticism; and it is better to remain by long-established and serviceable distinctions. So, again, when R6cejac defines mysti- cism as " the tendency to draw near to the Absolute in moral union by symbolic means," the definition, as developed by him, is one which would apply to the philosophy of Kant. Recdjac's interesting work, Les Fondements de la connaissance mystique (Eng. trans. 1899), though it touches mysticism at various points, and quotes from mystic writers, is in fact a protest against the limitations of experi- ence to the data of the senses and the pure reason to the exclusion of the moral consciousness and the deliverances of " the heart." But such a position is not describable as mysticism in any recognized sense. On the other hand, where philosophy despairs of itself, exults in its own overthrow, and yet revels in the " mysteries " of a speculative Christianity, as in I. G. Hamann (1730-1788), the term mysticism may be fitly applied. So, again, it is in place where the movement of revulsion from a mechanical philosophy takes the form rather of immediate assertion than of reasoned demonstration, and where the writers, after insisting generally on the spiritual basis of phenomena, either leave the position without further defini- tion or expressly declare that the ultimate problems of philosophy cannot be reduced to articulate formulas. Examples of this are men like Novalis, Carlyle and Emerson, in whom philosophy may be said to be impatient of its own task. Schelling's explicit appeal in the Identitats-philosophie to an intellectual intuition of the Absolute, is of the essence of mysticism, both as an appeal to a supra- rational faculty and as a claim not merely to know but to realize God. The opposition of the reason to the understanding, as formu- lated by S. T. Coleridge, is not free from the first of these faults. The later philosophy of Schelling and the philosophy of Franz von Baader, both largely founded upon Boehme, belong rather to theosophy (q.v.) than to mysticism proper. AUTHORITIES. — Besides the sections on mysticism in the general histories of philosophy by Erdmann, Ueberweg and Windelband, and in works on church history and the history of dogma, reference may be made for the medieval period to Heinrich Schmid, Der Mysticismus in seiner Entstehungsperiode (1824); Charles Schmidt, Essai sur les mystiques du 14"" siecle (1836); Ad. Helfferich, Die christliche Mystik (1842); L. Noack, Die christliche Mystik des 128 MYTHOLOGY Mitlelallers (1853); J. Gorres, Die christliche Mystik (new ed., 1879- 1880); Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909). On the German mystics see W. Preger's Geschichte der deutschen Mystik (vol. i. 1874; vol. ii. 1 88 1; vol. iii. 1893). The works of Eckhart and his precursors are contained in F. Pfeiffer's Deutsche Mystiker des 14. Jahrhunderts (1845-1857). (A.S. P.-P.) MYTHOLOGY (Gr. /iu0oXnto and was born from the womb of a being who also bore a cow. The Rig-Veda (iv. 18, i) remarks, " His mother, a cow, bore Indra, an unlicked calf " — probably a metaphorical way of speaking. Heitsi Eibib, like countless other gods and herpes, is also said to have been the son of a virgin who tasted a particular plant, and so became pregnant, as in the German and Gallophrygian marchen of the almond tree, given by Grimm and Pausanias. Incest is one of the feats of Heitsi Eibib. Tsui-Goab, in the opinion of his worshippers, as we have seen, is a deified dead sorcerer, whose name means Wounded Knee, the sorcerer having been injured in the knee by an enemy. Dr Hahn tries to prove (by philology's " artful aid ") that the name really means " red dawn," and is a Hottentot way of speaking of the infinite. The philological arguments advanced are extremely weak, and by no means convincing. If we grant, however, for the sake of argument, that the early Hottentots wor- shipped the infinite under the figure of the dawn, and that, by for- getting their own meaning, they came to believe that the words which really meant " red dawn" meant " wounded knee " we must still admit that the devout have assigned to their deity all the attri- butes of an ancestral sorcerer. In short, " their Red Dawn," if red dawn he be, is a person, and a savage person, adored exactly as the actual fathers and grandfathers of the Hottentots are adored. We must explain this legend, then, on these principles, and not as an allegory of the dawn as the dawn appears to civilized people. About Gaunab (the Ahriman to Tsui-Goab's Ormuzd) Dr Hahn gives two distinct opinions. " Gaunab was at first a ghost, a mischief-maker and evil-doer " (op. cit. p. 85). But Gaunab he declares to be " the night-sky " (p. 126). Whether we regard Gaunab, Heitsi Eibib and Tsui-Goab as originally mythological representations of natural phenomena, or as deified dead men, it is plain that they are now venerated as non-natural human beings, possessing the custom- ary attributes of sorcerers. Thus of Tsui-Goab it is said, " He could do wonderful things which no other man could do, because he was very wise. He could tell what would happen in future times. He died several times, and several times he rose again " (statement of old Kxarab in Hahn, p. 61). The my thology of the Zulus as reported by H. Callaway (Unkulun- kulu, 1868-1870) is very thin and uninteresting. The Zulus are great worshippers of ancestors (who appear to men in the form of snakes), and they regard a being called Unkulunkulu as their first ancestor, and sometimes as the creator, or at least as the maker of men. It does not appear they identify Unkulunkulu, as a rule, with " the lord of heaven," who, like Indra, causes the thunder. The word answering to our lord is also applied," even to beasts, as the lion and the boa." The Zulus, like many distant races, sometimes attribute thunder to the " thunder-bird," which, as in North America, is occasionally seen and even killed by men. " It is said to have a red bill, red legs and a short red tail like fire. The bird is boiled for the sake of the fat, which is used by the heaven- doctors to puff on their bodies, and to anoint their lightning-rods." The Zulus are so absorbed in propitiating the shades of their dead (who, though in serpentine bodies, have human dispositions) that they appear to take little pleasure in mythological narratives. At the same time, the Zulus have many " nursery tales," the plots and incidents of which often bear the closest resemblance to the heroic myths of Greece, and to the marchen of European peoples.1 These indications will give a general idea of African divine myths. On the west coast the " ananzi " or spider takes the place of the mantis insect among the Bushmen. For some of his exploits Dasent's Tales from the Norse (2nd ed., Appendix) may be consulted. For South African religion see Lang. Magic and Religion; Dennett, At the « Back of the Black Man's Mind; Junod, Les Barotsa; Spieth, Die Ewe-Stamme; Frazer, The Golden Bough. Turning from the natives of Australia, and from African races of various degrees of culture, to the Papuan inhabitants of Melanesia, .. . , we find that mythological ideas are scarcely on a higher Sava s leve'- A" excellent account of the myths of the Banks Islanders and Solomon Islanders was given in Journ. Anthropol. Inst. (Feb. 1881) by the Rev. R. H. Codrington. The article contains a critical description of the difficulty with which mis- sionaries obtain information about the prior creeds. The people of the •These are collected by Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales (1868). Similar Kafir stories, also closely resembling the popular fictions of European races, have been published by Theal. Many other examples are published in the South African Folk-Lore Journal (1879, 1880). Banks Islands are chiefly ancestor-worshippers, but they also believe in, and occasionally pray to, a being named I Qat, one of the prehuman race endowed with supernatural powers who here, as elsewhere, do duty as gods. Here is an example of a prayer to Qat — the devotee is supposed to be in danger with his canoe: " Qate! Marawa! look down on me, smooth the sea for us two that I may go safely on the sea. Beat down for me the crests of the tide-rip ; let the tide-rip settle down away from me, beat it down level that it may sink and roll away, and I may come to a quiet landing-place." Compare the prayer of Odysseus to the river, whose mouth he had reached after three days' swimming on the tempestuous sea. " ' Hear me, O king, whosoever thou art, unto thee I am come as to one to whom prayer is made . . . nay, pity me, O king, for I avow myself thy suppliant.' So spake he, and the god stayed his stream, and with- held his waves, and made the water smooth before him " (Odyssey v. 450). The prayer of the Melanesian is on rather a higher religious level than that of the Homeric hero. The myths of Qat's adventures, however, are very crude, though not so wild as some of the Scan- dinavian myths about Odin and Loki, while they are less immoral than the adventures of Indra and Zeus. Qat was born in the isle of Vanua Levu; his mother was either a stone at the time of his birth, or was turned into a stone afterwards, jike Niobe. The mother of Apollo, according to Aelian, had the misfortune to be changed into a wolf. Qat had eleven brothers, not much more reputable than the Osbaldistones in Rob Roy. The youngest brother was " Tangaro Loloqong, the Fool." His pastime was to make wrong all that Qat made right, and he is sometimes the Ahriman to Qat's Ormuzd. The creative achievements of Qat must be treated of in the next section. Here it may be mentioned that, like the hero in the Breton marchen, Qat " brought the dawn " by introducing birds whose notes proclaimed the coming of morning. Before Qat's time there had been no night, but he purchased a sufficient allowance of darkness from I Qong, that is, night considered as a person in accordance with the law of savage thought already ex- plained. Night is a person in Greek mythology, and in the four- teenth book of the Iliad we read that Zeus abstained from punishing Sleep " because he feared to offend swift Night." Qat produced dawn, for the first time, by cutting the darkness with a knife of red obsidian. Afterwards " the fowls and birds showed the morning." On one occasion an evil power (Vui) slew all Qat's brothers, and hid them in a food-chest. As in the common " swallowing-myths " which we have met among bushmen and Australians, and will find among the Greeks, Qat restored his brethren to life. Qat is always accompanied by a powerful supernatural spider named Marawa. He first made Marawa's acquaintance when he was cutting down a tree for a canoe. Every night (as in the common European story, about bridge-building and church-building) the work was all undone by Marawa, whom Qat found means to conciliate. In all his future adventures the spider was as serviceable as the cat in Puss in Boots or the other grateful animals in European legend. Qat's great enemy, Qasavara, was dashed against the hard sky, and was turned into stone, like the foes of Perseus. The stone is still shown in Vanua Levu, like the stone which was Zeus in Laconia. Qat, like so many other " culture-heroes," disappeared mysteriously, and white men arriving in the island have been mistaken for Qat. His departure is sometimes connected with the myth of the deluge. In the New Hebrides, Tagar takes the rfile of Qat, and Suqe of the bad principle, Loki, Ahriman, Tangaro Loloqong, the Australian Crow and so forth. These are the best known divine myths of the Melanesians. For their All-Fathers see Holmes, /. A. I., vol. xxxv., and O'Farrell, J. A. I., vol. xxxiv., with Sundermann in Warneck's Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift, vol. xi. 1884. It is " a far cry " from Vanua Levu to Vancouver Island, and, ethnologically, the Ahts of the latter region are extremely remote from the Papuans with their mixture of Malay and ,«me_/can Polynesian blood. The Ahts, however, differ but little sava«s7 in their mythological beliefs from the races of the Banks Islands or of the New Hebrides. In Sproat's Scenes from Savage Life (1868) there is a good account of Aht opinions by a settler who had won the confidence of the natives between 1860 and 1868. " There is no end to the stories which an old Indian will relate," says Mr Sproat, when " one quite possesses his confidence." "The first Indian who ever lived " is a divine being, something of a creator, something of a first father, like Unkulunkulu among the Zulus. His name is Quawteaht. He married a pre-existent bird, the thunder- bird Tootah (we have met him among the Zulus), and by the bird he became the father of Indians. Wispohahp is the Aht Noah, who, with his wife, his two brothers and their wives escaped from the deluge in a canoe. Quawteaht is inferior as a deity to the Sun and Moon. He is the Yama of an Aht paradise, or home of the dead, where " everything is beautiful and abundant." From all that is told of Quawteaht he seems to be an ideal and powerful Aht, imaginatively placed at the beginning of things, and quite capable of intermarriage with a bird. His creative exploits must be con- sidered later. Quawteaht is the Aht Prometheus Purphoros, or fire-stealer. Passing down the American continent from the north-west, we find Yehl the chief hero-god and mythical personage among the Tlingits. Like many other heroes or gods, Yehl had a miraculous birth. His mother, a Tlingit woman, whose sons had all been MYTHOLOGY slain, met a friendly dolphin, which advised her to swallow a pebble and a little sea-water. The birth of Yehl was the result. In his youth he shot a supernatural crane, and can always fly about in its feathers, like Odin and Loki in Scandinavian myth. He is usually, however, regarded as a raven, and holds the same relation to men and the world as the eagle-hawk Pund-jel does in Australia. His great opponent (for the eternal dualism comes in) is Khanukh, who is a wolf, and the ancestor or totem of the wolf-race of men as Yehl is of the raven. The opposition between the Crow and Eagle-hawk in Australia will be remembered. Both animals or men or gods take part in creation. Yehl is the Prometheus Purphoros of the Tlingits, but myths of the fire-stealer would form matter for a separate section. Yehl also stole water, in his bird-shape, exactly as Odin stole " Suttung's mead " when in the shape of an eagle.1 Yehl's powers of metamorphosis and of flying into the air are the common accomplishments of sorcerers, and he is a rather crude form of first father, culture-hero " and creator.2 Among the Karok Indians we find the great hero and divine benefactor in the shape of, not a raven, nor an eagle-hawk, nor a mantis insect, nor a spider, but a coyote. Among both Karok and Navaho the coyote is the Prometheus Purphoros, or, as the Aryans of India call him, Matarisvan the fire-stealer. Among the Papagos, on the eastern side of the Gulf of California, the coyote or prairie wolf is the creative hero and chief supernatural being. In Oregon the coyote is also the " demiurge," but most of the myths about him refer to his creative exploits, and will be more appro- priately treated in the next section. Moving up the Pacific coast to British Columbia, we find the musk-rat taking the part played by Vishnu, when in his avatar as a boar he fished up the earth from the waters. Among the Tinneh a miraculous dog, who, like an enchanted fairy prince, could assume the form of a handsome young man, is the chief divine being of the myths. He too is chiefly a creative or demiurgic being, answering to Purusha in the Rig Veda. So far the peculiar mark of the wilder American tribe legends is the bestial character of the divine beings, which is also illustrated in Australia and Africa, while the bestial clothing, feathers or fur, drops but slowly off Indra, Zeus and the Egyptian Ammon, and the Scandinavian Odin. All these are more or less anthropomorphic, but retain, as will be seen, numerous relics of a theriomorphic condition. See C. Hill-Tout and F. Boas in various publications, and, generally, the volumes of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, U.S.A. For Ti-ra-wa, " the Ruler of the Universe," also styled A-ti-us, " father," among the Pawnees, see G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee Hero Stories (1893). Maori and Polynesian Beliefs. — Passing from the lower savage myths, of which space does not permit us to offer a larger selection, we turn to races in the upper strata of barbarism. Among these the Maoris of New Zealand, and the Polynesian people generally, are remarkable for a mythology largely intermixed with early attempts at more philosophical speculation. The Maoris and Mangaians, and other peoples, have had speculators among them not very far removed from the mental condition of the earliest Greek philosophers, Empedocles, Anaximander, and the rest. In fact the process from the view of nature which we call personalism to the crudest theories of the physicists was apparently begun in New Zealand before the arrival of Europeans. In Maori mythology it is more than usually difficult to keep apart the origin of the world and the origin and nature of the gods. Long traditional hymns give an account of the " becoming out of nothing " which resulted in the evolution of the gods and the world. In the beginning (as in the Greek myths of Uranus and Gaea), Heaven (Rangi, conceived of as a person) was indissolubly united to his wife Earth (Papa), and be- tween them they begat gods which necessarily dwelt in darkness. These gods were some m vegetable, some in animal form; some traditions place among these gods Tiki the demiurge, who (like Prometheus) made men out of clay. The offspring of Rangi and Papa (kept in the dark as they were) held a council to determine how they should treat their parents, " Shall we slay them, or shall we separate them?" In the Hesiodic fable, Cronus separates the heavenly pair by mutilating his oppressive father Uranus. Among the Maoris the god Tutenganahan cut the sinews which united Earth and Heaven, and Tane Mahuta wrenched them apart, and kept them eternally asunder. The new dynasty now had earth to themselves, but Tawhiramatea, the wind, abode aloft with his father. Some of the gods were in the forms of lizards and fishes ; some went to the land, some to the water. As among the gods and Asuras of the Vedas, there were many wars in the divine race, and as the incantations of the Indian Brahmanas are derived from those old experiences of the Vedic gods, so are the incantations of the Maoris. The gods of New Zealand, the greater gods at least, may be called " departmental "; each person who is an elementary force is also the god of that force. As Te Heu, a powerful chief, said, there is division of labour among men, and so there is among gods. " One made this, another that; Tane made trees, Ru moun- tains, Tanga-roa fish, and so forth." * The " departmental " arrangement prevails among the polytheism of civilized peoples, 1 Dasent, Bragi's Telling: Younger Edda, p. 94. 1 Bancroft, vol. iv. ' Taylor, New Zealand, p. 108 and is familiar to all from the Greek examples. Leaving the high gods whose functions are so large, while their forms (as of lizard, fish and tree) are often so mean, we come to Maui, the great divine hero of the supernatural race in Polynesia. Maui in some respects answers to the chief of the Adityas in Vedic mythology ; in others he answers to Qat, Quawteaht, and other savage divine personages. Like the son of the Vedic Aditi,4 Maui is a rejected and abortive child of his mother, but afterwards attains to the highest reputation. As Qat brought the hitherto unknown night, so Maui settled the sun and moon in their proper courses. He induced the sun to move orderly by giving him a violent beating. A similar feat was per- formed by the Sun- trapper, a famous Red Indian chief. These tales belong properly to the department of solar myths. Maui him- self is thought by E. B. Tylor to be a myth of the sun, but the sun could hardly give the sun a drubbing. Maui slew monsters, invented barbs for fish-hooks, frequently adopted the form of various birds, acted as Prometheus Purphoros the fire-stealer, drew a whole island up from the bottom of the deep ; he was a great sorcerer and magician. Had Maui succeeded in his attempt to pass through the body of Night (considered as a woman) men would have been immortal. But a little bird which sings at sunset wakened Night, she snapped up Maui, and men die. This has been called a myth of sunset, but the sun does what Maui failed to do, he passes through the body of Night unharmed. The adventure is one of the myths of the origin of death, which are almost universally diffused. Maui, though regarded as a god, is not often addressed in prayer.6 The whole system, as far as it can be called a system, of Maori mythology is obviously based on the savage conceptions of the world which have already been explained. The Polynesian system differs mainly in detail; we have the separation of heaven and earth, the animal-shaped gods, the fire-stealing, the exploits of Maui, and scores of minor myths in W. W. Gill's Myths and Songs of the South Pacific, in the researches of W. Ellis, of Williams, in G. Turner's Polynesia, and in many other accessible works. Mexican and Peruman Beliefs. — The Maoris and other Polynesian peoples are perhaps the best examples of a race which has risen far above the savagery of Bushmen and Australians, but has not yet arrived at the stage in which great centralized monarchies appear. The Mexican and Peruvian civilizations were far ahead of Maori culture, in so far as they possessed the elements of a much more settled and highly-organized society. Their religion had its fine lucid intervals, but their mythology and ritual were little better than savage ideas, elaborately worked up by the imagination of a cruel and superstitious priesthood. In cruelty the Aztecs surpassed perhaps all peoples of the Old World, except certain Semitic stocks, and their gods, of course, surpassed almost all other gods in blood- thirstiness. But in grotesque and savage points of faith the ancient Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Vedic Indians ran even the Aztecs pretty close. Bernal Diaz, the old " conquistador," has described the hideous aspect of the idols which Cortes destroyed, " idols in the shape of hideous dragons as big as calves," idols half in the form of men, half of dogs, and serpents which were worshipped as divine. The old contemporary missionary Sahagun has left one of the earliest detailed accounts of the natures and myths of these gods, but, though Sahagun took great pains in collecting facts, his speculations must be accepted with caution. He was convinced (like Caxton in his Destruction of Troy, and like St Augustine) that the heathen gods were only dead men worshipped. Ancestor-worship is a great force in early religion, and the qualities of dead chiefs and sorcerers are freely attributed to gods, but it does not follow that each god was once a real man, as Sahagun supposes. Euemerism cannot be judiciously carried so far as this. Of Huitzilopochtli, the famed god, Sahagun says that he was a necromancer, loved " shape- shifting," like Odin, metamorphosed himself into animal forms, was miraculously conceived, and, among animals, is confused with the humming-bird, whose feathers adorned his statues."' This hum- ming-bird god should be compared with the Roman Picus (Servius, 189). That the humming-bird (Nuitziton), which was the god's old shape, should become merely his attendant (like the owl of Pallas, the mouse of Apollo, the goose of Priapus, the cuckoo of Hera), when the god received anthropomorphic form, is an example of a process common in all mythologies. Plutarch observes that the Greeks, though accustomed to the conceptions of the animal attendants of their own gods, were amazed when they found animals worshipped as gods by the Egyptians. Miiller 7 mentions the view that the humming-bird, as the most beautiful flying thing, is a proper symbol of the heaven, and so of the heaven-god, Huitzilopochtli. This vein of symbolism is so easy to work that it must be regarded with distrust. Perhaps it is safer to attribute theriomorphic shapes of * Rig Veda, x. 72, I, 8; Muir, Sanskrit Texts, iv. 13, where the fable from the Satapatha-Brahmana is given. 6 The best authorities for the New Zealand myths are the old traditional priestly hymns, collected and translated in the works of Sir George Grey, in Taylor's New Zealand, in Shortland's Traditions of New_ Zealand (1857), in Bastian's Heilige Sage der Polynesier, and in White's Ancient History of the Maori, i. 8-13. 6 See also Bancroft, iii. 288-290, and Acosta, pp. 352-361. T Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 592. MYTHOLOGY gods, not to symbolism (Zeus was a cuckoo), but to survivals from that quality of early thought which draws no line between man and god and beast and bird and fish. If spiders may be great gods, why not the more attractive humming-birds ? Like many other gods, Huitzilopochtli slew his foes at his birth, and hence received names analogous to A«MOS and 4>6/3os: Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii. 307) calls Huitzilopochtli an " inextricable compound partheno- genetic god." His sacrament, when paste idols of him were eaten by the communicants, was at the winter solstice, whence it may, perhaps, be inferred that Huitzilopochtli was not only a war-god but a nature-god — in both respects anthropomorphic, and in both bearing traces of the time when he was but a humming-bird, as Yehl was a raven (Muller, op. cit. p. 595). As a humming-bird, Huitzilo- pochtli led the Aztecs to a new home, as a wolf led the Hirpini, and as a woodpecker led the Sabines. Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec deity, is as much a sparrow (or similar small bird) as Huitzilopochtli is a humming-bird. Acosta says he retained the sparrow's head in his statue. For the composite character of Quetzalcoatl as a "culture- hero " (a more polished version of Qat), as a " nature-god," and as a theriomorphic god see Muller (op. cit. pp. 583-584). Muller frankly recognizes that not only are animals symbols of deity and its attributes, not only are they companions and messengers of deity (as in the period of anthropomorphic religion), but they have been divine beings in and for themselves during the earlier stages of thought. The Mexican " departmental " gods answer to those of other polytheisms; there is an Aztec Ceres, an Aztec Lucina, an Aztec Vulcan, an Aztec Flora, an Aztec Venus. The creative myths and sun myths are crude and very early in character. Egyptian Myths. — On a much larger and more magnificent scale, and on a much more permanent basis, the society of ancient Egypt somewhat resembled that of ancient Mexico. The divine myths of the two nations had points in common, but there are few topics more obscure than Egyptian mythology. Writers are apt to speak of Egyptian religion as if it were a single phenomenon of which all the aspects could be observed at a given time. In point of fact Egyptian religion (conservative though it was) lasted through per- haps five thousand years, was subject to innumerable influences, historical, ethnological, philosophical, and was variously represented by various schools of priests. We cannot take the Platonic specula- tions of lamblichus about the nature and manifestations of Egyptian godhead as evidence for the belief of the peoples who first worshipped the Egyptian gods an innumerable series of ages before lamblichus and Plutarch. Nor can the esoteric and pantheistic theories of priests (according to which the various beast-gods were symbolic manifestations of the divine essence) be received as an historical account of the origin of the local animal-worships. It has already been shown that the lowest and least intellectual races indulge in local animal-worship, each stock having its parent bird, beast, fish, or even plant, or inanimate object. It has also been shown that these backward peoples recognize a non-natural race of men or animals, or both, as the first fathers, heroes, and, in a sense, gods. Such ideas are consonant with, and may be traced to the confused and nebulous condition of, savage thought. Precisely the same ideas are found at various periods among the ancient Egyptians. If we are to regard the Egyptian myths about the gods in animal shape, and about the non-natural superhuman heroes, and their wars and loves, as esoteric allegories devised by civilized priests, perhaps we should also explain Pund-jel, Qat, Quawteaht, the Mantis god, the Spider creator, the Coyote and Raven gods as priestly inventions, put forth in a civilized age, and retained by Australians, Bushmen, Hottentots, Ahts, Thlinkeets, Papuans, who preserve no other vestiges of high civilization. Or we may take the opposite view, and regard the story of Osiris and his war with Seth (who shut him up in a box and mutilated him) as a dualistic myth, originally on the level of the battle between'Gaunab andTsui-Goab, or between Tagar and Suqe. We may regard the local beast- and plant-gods of Egypt as survivals of totems and totem-gods like those of Australia, India, America, Africa, Siberia and other countries. In this article the latter view is adopted. The beast-gods and dualistic and creative myths of savages are looked on as the natural product of the savage reason and fancy. The same beast-gods and myths in civilized Egypt are looked on as survivals from the rude and early condition of thought to which such conceptions are natural. In the most ancient Egyptian records the gods are not pictorially represented, and we have not obtained from these records any descriptions of adoration and sacrifice. There is a prayer to the Sky on the coffin of the king of Dynasty IV., known as Mycerinus to the Greeks. The king describes himself as the child of Sky and Earth. He also somewhat obscurely identifies himself with Osiris. We thus find Osiris very near the beginning of what is known about Egyptian religion. This being is rather a culture-hero, a member of a non-natural race of men like Qat or Manabozho, than a god. His myth, to be afterwards narrated, is found pictorially represented in a tomb and in the late temple of Philae, is frequently alluded to in the litanies of the dead about 1400 B.C., is indicated with reverent awe by Herodotus, and after the Christian era is described at full length by Plutarch. Whether the same myth was current in the far more distant days of Mycerinus, it is, of course, impossible to say with dogmatic certainty. The religious history of Egypt, from perhaps Dynasty X. to Dynasty XX., is interrupted by an invasion of Semitic conquerors and Semitic ideas. Prior to that invasion the gods, when mentioned in monuments, are always represented by animals, and these animals are the object of strictly local worship. The name of each god is spelled in hieroglyphs beside the beast or bird. The jackal stands for Anup, the hawk for Har, the frog for Hekt, the baboon for Tahuti, and Ptah, Asiri, Hesi, Nebhat, Hat-hor, Neit, Khnum and Amun-hor are all written out phonetically, but never represented in pictures. Different cities had their different beast-gods. Pasht, the cat, was the god of Bubastis; Apis, the bull, of Memphis; Hapi, the wolf , of Sioot; Ba, the goat, of Mendes. The evidence of Herodotus, Plutarch and the other writers shows that the Egyptians of each district refused to eat the flesh of the animal they held sacred. So far the identity of custom with savage totemism is absolute. Of all the explanations, then, of Egyptian animal-worship, that which regards the practice as a survival of totemism and of savagery seems the most satis- factory. So far Egyptian religion only represented her gods in theriomorphic shape. Beasts also appeared in the royal genealogies, as if the early Egyptians had filled up the measure of totemism by regarding themselves as actually descended from animals. With one or two exceptions, " the first (semi-anthropomorphic) figures of gods known in the civilized parts of Egypt are on the granite obelisk of Bezig in the Fayyiim, erected by Usertesen I. of Dynasty XII., and here we find the forms all full-blown at once. The first group of deities belongs to a period and a district in which Semitic influences had undoubtedly begun to work " (Petrie). From this period the mixed and monstrous figures, semi-theriomorphic, semi- anthropomorphic, hawk-headed and ram-headed and jackal-headed gods become common. This may be attributed to Semitic influence, or we may suppose that the process of anthropomorphizing therio- morphic gods was naturally developing itself; for Mexico has shown us and Greece can show us abundant examples of these mixed figures, in which the anthropomorphic god retains traces of his theriomorphic past. The heretical worship of the solar disk inter- rupted the course of Egyptian religion under some reforming kings, but the great and glorious Ramesside Dynasty (XIX.) restored " Orus and Isis and the dog Anubis " with the rest of the semi- theriomorphic deities. These survived even their defeat by the splendid human gods of Rome, and only " fled from the folding star of Bethlehem." Though Egypt was rich in gods, her literature is not fertile in myths. The religious compositions which have survived are, as a rule, hymns and litanies, the funereal service, the " Book of the Dead." In these works the myths are taken for granted, are alluded to in the course of addresses to the divine beings, but, naturally, are not told in full. As in the case of the Vedas, hymns are poor sources for the study of mythology, just as the hymns of the Church would throw little light on the incidents of the gospel story or of the Old Testament. The " sacred legends " which the priests or temple servants freely communicated to Herodotus are lost through the pious reserve of the traveller. Herodotus constantly alludes to the most famous Egyptian myth.that of Osiris, and he recognizes the analogies between the Osirian myth and mysteries and those of Dionysus. But we have to turn to the very late authority of Plutarch (De Iside et Osiride) for an account, confessedly incomplete and expurgated, of what mythology had to tell about the great Egyptian " culture-hero," " daemon, and god. Osiris, Horus, Typhon (Seth), Isis and Nephthys were the children of Seb (whom the Greeks identified with Cronus) ; the myths of their birth were peculiarly savage and obscene. Osiris introduced civilization into Egypt, and then wandered over the world, making men acquainted with agriculture and the arts, as Pund-jel in his humbler way did in Australia. On his return Typhon laid a plot for him. He had a beautiful carved chest made which exactly fitted Osiris, and at an entertainment offered to give it to any one who could lie down in it. As soon as Osiris tried, Typhon had the box nailed up, and threw it into the Tanaite branch of the Nile. Isis wandered, mourning, in search of the body, as Demeter sought Persephone, and perhaps in Plutarch's late version some incidents may be borrowed from the Eleusinian legend. At length she found the chest, which in her absence was again discovered by Typhon. He mangled the body of Osiris (as so many gods of all races were mangled), and tossed the fragments about. Wherever Isis found a portion of Osiris she buried it ; hence Egypt was as rich in graves of Osiris as Namaqualand in graves of Heitsi Eibib. The phallus alone she did not find, but she consecrated a model thereof ; hence (says the myth) came the phallus-worship of Egypt. Afterwards Osiris returned from the shades, and (in the form of a wolf) urged his son Hprus to revenge him on Typhon^ The gods fought in animal shape (Birch, in Wilkinson, mous oft also show the stars into which they were metamorphosed, as the Eskimo and Australians and Aryans of India and Greeks have recog- nized in the constellations their ancient heroes. Plutarch remarked the fact that the Greek myths of Cronus, of Dionysus, of Apollo and the Python, and of Demeter, " all the things that are shrouded in mystic ceremonies and are presented in rites," " do not fall short in absurdity of the legends about Osiris and Typhon." Plutarch naturally presumed that the myths which seem absurd shrouded MYTHOLOGY 139 some great moral or physical mystery. But we apply no such explanation to similar savage legends, and our theory is that the Osirian myth is only one of these retained to the time of Plutarch by the religious conservatism of a race which, to the time of Plutarch, preserved in full vigour most of the practices of totemism. As a slight confirmation of the possibility of this theory we may mention that Greek mysteries retained two of the features of savage mysteries. The first was the rite of daubing the initiated with clay.1 This custom prevails in African mysteries, in Guiana, among Australians, Papuans, and Andaman Islanders. The other custom is the use of • the turndun, as the Australians call a little fish-shaped piece of wood tied to a string, and waved so as to produce a loud booming and whirring noise and keep away the profane, especially women. It is employed in New Mexico, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia. This instrument, the KWTOJ, was also used in Greek mysteries.* Neither the use of the KUTOS nor of the clay can very well be regarded as a civilized practice retained by savages. The hypothesis that the rites and the stories are savage inventions surviving into civilized religion seems better to meet the difficulty. That the Osirian myth (much as it was elaborated and allegorized) originated in the same sort of fancy as the Tacullie story of the dismembered beaver out of whose body things were made is a con- clusion not devoid of plausibility. Typhon's later career, " commit- ting dreadful crimes out of envy and spite, and throwing all things into confusion," was parallel to the proceedings of most of the divine beings who put everything wrong, in opposition to the being who makes everything right. This is perhaps an early " dualist ii: " myth. Among other mythic Egyptian figures we have Ra, who once destroyed men in his wrath with circumstances suggestive of the Deluge; Khnum, a demiurge, is represented at Philae as making man out of clay on a potter's wheel. Here the wheel is added to the Maori conception of the making of man. Khnum is said to have reconstructed the limbs of the dismembered Osiris. Ptah is the Egyptian Hephaestus; he is represented as a dwarf; men are said to have come out of his eye, gods out of his mouth — a story like that of Purusha in the Rig Veda. As creator of man, Ptah is a frog. Bubastis became a cat to avoid the wrath of Typhon. Ra, the sun, fought the big serpent Apap, as Indra fought Vrittra. Seb is a goose, called the great cackler "; he laid the creative egg.3 Divine Myths of the Aryans of India. Indra. — The gods of the Vedas and Brahmanas (the ancient hymns and canonized ritual-books of Aryan India) are, on the whole, of the usual polytheistic type. More than many other gods they retain in their titles and attributes the character of elemental phenomena personified. That personifica- tion is, as a rule, anthropomorphic, but traces of theriomorphic personification are still very apparent. The ideas which may be gathered about the gods from the hymns are (as is usual in heathen religions) without consistency. There is no strict orthodoxy. As each bard of each bardic family celebrates his favourite god he is apt to make him for the moment the pre-eminent deity of all. This way of thinking about the gods leads naturally in the direction of a pantheistic monotheism in which each divine being may be regarded as a manifestation of the one divine essence. No doubt this point of view was attained in centuries extremely remote by sages of the civilized Vedic world. It is easy, however, to detect certain peculiar characteristics of each god. As among races much less advanced in civilization than the Vedic Indians, each of the greater powers has his own separate department, however much his worshippers may be inclined to regard him as an absolute premier with undisputed latitude of personal government. Thus Indra is mainly concerned with thunder and other atmospheric phenomena; but Vayu is the wind, the Maruts are wind-gods, Agni is fire or the god of fire, and so connected with lightning. Powerful as Indra is in the celestial world, Mitra and Varuna preside over night and day. Ushas is the dawn, and Tvashtri is the mechanic among the gods, correspond- ing to the Egyptian Ptah and the Greek Hephaestus. Though lofty moral qualities and deep concern about the conduct of men are attributed to the gods in the Vedic hymns, yet the hymns contain traces (and these are amplified in the ritual books) of a divine chronique scandaleuse. In this chronique the gods, like other gods, are adventurous warriors, adulterers, incestuous, homicidal, given to animal transformations, cowardly, and in fact charged with all human vices, and credited with magical powers.4 It would be difficult to speak too highly of the ethical nobility of many Vedic hymns. The " hunger and thirst after righteousness " of the sacred 1 Demosthenes, De corona, p. 313, uoi naBalpav rows Tt\ovnkvo\n nal iiTOIiiiTTtjlV T HTjXlJ Kdl TOIS XlTUpOlS. 2 KWTOS £uXApioc ow 4£ijrrai fi> avaprlov, nal iv TaTs TeXtTais tioPtiro iKafioifjj. Quoted by Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. 700, from Bastius ad Gregor., 241, anil from other sources; cf. Arnobius, v. c. 19, where the word turbines is the Latin term. ' Wilkinson, iii. 62, see note by Dr Birch. A more detailed account of Egyptian religion is given under EGYPT. Unfortunately Egyptologists have rarely a wide knowledge of the myths of the lower races, while anthropologists are seldom or never Egyptologists. 4 For examples of the lofty morality sometimes attributed to the gods, see Max Miiller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 284; Rig-Veda, ii. 28; iv. 12, 4; viii. 93 seq. ; Mutr, Sanskrit Texts, v. 218. poet recalls the noblest aspirations and regrets of the Hebrew psalmist. But this aspect of the Vedic deities is essentially matter for the science of religion rather than of mythology, which is con- cerned with the stories told about the gods. Religion is always forgetting, or explaining away, or apologizing for these stories. Now the Vedic deities, so imposing when regarded as vast natural forces (as such forces seem to us), so benignant when appealed to as forgivers of sins, have also their mythological aspect. In this aspect they are natural phenomena still, but phenomena as originally conceived of by the personifying imagination of the savage, and credited, like the gods of the Maori or the Australian, with all manner of freaks, adventures and disguises. The Veda, it is true, does not usually dilate much on the worst of these adventures. The Veda contains devotional hymns; we can no more expect much narrative here than in the Psalms of David. Again, the religious sentiment of the Veda is half-consciously hostile to the stories. As M. A. Barth says, " Le sentiment religieux a ecarte la plupart de ces mythes, mais il ne les a ecartes tous." The Brahmanas, on the other hand, later compilations, canonized books for the direction of ritual and sacrifice, are rich in senseless and irrational myths. Sometimes these myths are probably later than the Veda, mere explanations of ritual incidents devised by the priests. Sometimes a myth probably older than the Vedas, and maintained in popular tradition, is reported in the Brahmanas. The gods in the Veda are by no means always regarded as equal in supremacy. There were great and small, young and old gods (R. V. i. 27, 13). Elsewhere this is flatly contradicted: " None of you, oh gods, is small or young, ye are all great " (R. V. viii. 30, i). As to the immortality and the origin of the gods, there is no orthodox opinion in the Veda. Many of the myths of the origin of the divine beings are on a level with the Maori theory that Heaven and Earth begat them in the ordinary way. Again, the gods were represented as the children of Aditi. This may be taken either in a refined sense, as if Aditi were the " infinite region from which the solar deities rise,6 or we may hold with the Taittirya-Brahmana* that Aditi was a female who, being desirous of offspring, cooked a brahmandana offering for the Sadhyas. Various other fathers and mothers of the gods are mentioned. Some gods, particularly Indra, are said to have won divine rank by " austere fervour " and asceticism, which is one of the processes that makes gods out of mortals even now in India.7 The gods are not always even credited with inherent immortality. Like men, they were subject to death, which they overcame in various ways. Like most gods, they had struggles for pre-eminence with Titanic opponents, the Asuras, who partly answer to the Greek Titans and the Hawaiian foes of the divine race, or to the Scandinavian giants and the enemies who beset the savage creative beings. Early man, living in a state of endless warfare, naturally believes that his gods also nave their battles. The chief foes of Indra are Vrittra and Ahi, serpents which swallow up the waters, precisely as frogs do in Austra- lian and Californian and Andaman myths. It has already been shown that such creatures, thunder-birds, snakes, dragons, and what not, people the sky in the imagination of Zulus, Red Men, Chinese, Peruvians, and all the races who believe that beasts hunt the sun and moon and cause eclipses.8 Though hostile to Asuras, Indra was once entangled in an intrigue with a woman of that race, accord- ing to the Athania-Veda (Muir, 5. T. \. 82). The gods were less numerous than the Asuras, but by a magical stratagem turned some bricks into gods (like a creation of new peers to carry a vote) — so says the Black Yajur-Veda.' Turning to separate gods, Indra first claims attention, for stories of Heaven and Earth are better studied under the heading of myths of the origin of things. Indra has this zoomorphic feature in common with Heitsi Eibib, the Namaqua god,10 that his mother, or one of his mothers, was a cow (R. V. iv. 18, i). This statement may be a mere way of speaking in the Veda, but it is a rather Hottentot way.11 Indra is also referred to as a ram in the Veda, and in one myth this ram could fly, like the Greek ram of the fleece of gold. He was certainly so far connected with sheep that he and sheep and the Kshatriya caste sprang from the breast and arms of Prajapati, a kind of creative being. Indra was a great drinker of spma juice; a drinking-song by Indra, much bemused with soma, is in R. V. x. 1 19. On one occasion Indra got at the soma by assuming the shape of a quail. In the Taitt. Sarah, (ii. 5; i. i) Indra is said to have been guilty of that most hideous crime, the killing of a Brahmana." u Once, though uninvited, Indra drank some soma that had been prepared for another being. The soma disagreed with Indra; part of it which was not drunk up became Vrittra the serpent, Indra's 6 Miiller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 230. • Muir, 5. T., v. 55; i. 27. 7 See Sir A. Lyall, Asiatic Studies. For Ve^ic examples, see R.-V. x. 167, i ; x. 159, 4; Muir, 5. T. v. 15. 8 See Tylor, Primitive Culture, i. 288, 329, 356. • The chief authority for the constant strife between gods and Asuras is the Satapatha-Brahmana, of which one volume is translated in Sacred Books of the East (vol. xii.). 10 Hahn, Tsunt-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Hottentots, p. 68. 11 See Muir, 5. T., v. 16, 17, for Indra's peculiar achievements with a cow. a Sacred Books of the East, xii. i, 48. 140 MYTHOLOGY enemy. Indra cut him in two, and made the moon out of half of his body. This serpent was a universal devourer of everything and everybody, like Kwai Hemm, the all-devourer in Bushman mytho- logy. If this invention is a late priestly one, the person who intro- duced it into the Satapatha-Brahmana must have reverted to the intellectual condition of Bushmen. In the fight with Vrittra, Indra lost his energy, which fell to the earth and produced plants and shrubs. In the same way plants, among the Iroquois, were made of pieces knocked off Chokampok in his fight with Manabozho. Vines, in particular, are the entrails of Chokanipok. In Egypt, wine was the blood of the enemies of the gods. The Aryan versions of this sensible legend will be found in Satapatha-Brahmana.1 The civilized mind soon wearies of this stuff, and perhaps enough has been said to prove that, in the traditions of Vedic devotees, Indra was not a god without an irrational element in his myth. Our argument is, that all these legends about Indra, of which only a sample is given, have no necessary connexion with the worship of a pure nature-god as a nature-god would now be constructed by men. The legends are survivals of a time in which natural phenomena were regarded, not as we regard them, but as persons, ana savage persons, Alcheringa folk, in fact, and became the centres of legends in the savage manner. Space does not permit us to recount the equally puerile and barbarous legends of Vishnu, Agni, the loves of Vivasvat in the form of a horse, the adventures of Soma, nor the Vedic amours (paralleled in several savage mythologies) of Pururavas and Urvasi.2 Divine Myths of Greece. — If any ancient people was thoroughly civilized the Greeks were that people. Yet in the mythology and religion of Greece we find abundant survivals of savage manners and of savage myths. As to the religion, it is enough to point to the traces of human sacrifice and to the worship of rude fetish stones. The human sacrifices at Salamis in Cyprus and at Alos in Achaia Phthiotis may be said to have continued almost to the conversion of the empire (Grote i. 125, ed. 1869). Pausanias seems to have found human sacrifices to Zeus still lingering in Arcadia in the 2nd century of our era. " On this altar on the Lycaean hill they sacrifice to Zeus in a manner that may not be spoken, and little liking had I to pry far into that sacrifice. But let it be as it is, and as it hath been from the beginning." Now " from the beginning " the sacrifice, according to Arcadian tradition, had been a human sacrifice. In other places there were manifest commutations of human sacrifice, as at the altar of Artemis the Implacable at Patrae, where Pausanias saw the wild beasts being driven into the_ flames.3 Many other exam- ples of human sacrifice are mentioned in Greek legend. Pausanias gives full and interesting details of the worship of rude stones, the oldest worship, he says, among the Greeks. Almost every temple had its fetish stone on a level with the pumice stone, which is the Poseidon of the Mangaians.4 The Argives had a large stone called Zeus Cappotas. The oldest idol of the Thespians was a rude stone. Another has been found beneath the pedestal of Apollo in Delos. In Achaean Pharae were thirty squared stones, each named by the name of a god. Among monstrous images of the gods which Pausanias, who saw them, regarded as the oldest idols, were the three-headed Artemis, each head being that of an animal, the Demeter with the horse's head, the Artemis with the fish's tail, the Zeus with three eyes, the ithyphallic Hermes, represented after the fashion of the Priapic figures in paintings on the walls of caves among the Bushmen. We also hear of the bull and the bull-footed Dionysus. Phallic and other obscene emblems were carried abroad in processions in Attica both by women and men. The Greek custom of daubing people all over with clay in the mysteries results as we saw in the mysteries of negroes, Australians and American races, while the Australian turndun was exhibited among the toys at the mysteries of Dionysus. The survivals of rites, objects of worship, and sacrifices like these prove that religious conservatism in Greece retained much of savage practice, and the Greek mythology is not less full of ideas familiar to the lowest races. The authorities for Greek mythology are numerous and various in character. The oldest sources as literary docu- ments are the Homeric and Hesiodic poems. In the Iliad and Odyssey the gods and goddesses are beautiful, powerful and immortal anthropomorphic beings. The name of Zeus (Skr. Dyaus) clearly indicates his connexion with the sky. But in Homer he has long ceased to be merely the sky conceived of as a person; he is the 1 Sacred Books of the East, xii. 176, 177. 1 On the whole subject, Dr Muir's Ancient Sanskrit Texts, with 'translations, Lud wig's translation of the Rig Veda, the version of the Satapatha-Brahmana already referred to, and the translation of the Aitareya-Brahmana by Haug, are the sources most open to English readers. Max Miiller's translation of the Rig Veda unfor- tunately only deals with the hymns to the Maruts. The Indian epics and the Puranas belong to a much later date, and are full of deities either unknown to or undeveloped in the Rig Veda and the Brahmanas. _ It is much to be regretted that the Atharva-Veda, which contains the magical formulae and incantations of the Vedic Indians, is still untranslated, though, by the very nature of its theme, it must contain matter of extreme antiquity and interest. 8 Pausanias iii. 16; vii. 18. Human sacrifice to Dionysus, Paus. vii. 21 ; Plutarch, De Is. el Os. 35; Porphyry, De Abst. ii. 55. 4 Gill, Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 60. chief personage in a society of immortals, organized on the type of contemporary human society. " There is a great deal of human nature ' in his wife Hera (Skr. Svar, Heaven).6 It is to be remem- bered that philologists differ widely as to the origin and meaning of the names of almost all the Greek gods. Thus the light which the science of language throws on Greek myths is extremely uncertain. Hera is explained as " the feminine side of heaven " by some authori- ties. The quarrels of Hera with Zeus (which are a humorous anthropomorphic study in Homer) are represented as a way of speak- ing about winter and rough weather. The other chief Homeric deities are Apollo and Artemis, children of Zeus by Leto, a mortal mother raised to divinity. Apollo is clearly connected in some way with light, as his name <£oi/Jos seems to indicate, and with purity.6 Homer knows the legend that a giant sought to lay violent hands on Leto (Od. xi. 580). Smintheus, one of Apollo's titles in Homer, is connected with the field-mouse (anlvOos), one of his many sacred animals. His names, AUMOS, tviantviis, were connected by an- tiquity with the wolf, by most modern writers with the light. According to some legends Leto had been a were-wolf .' The whole subject of the relations of Greek gods to animals is best set forth in the words of Plutarch (De Is. et Os. Ixxi.), where he says that the Egyptians worship actual beasts, " whereas the Greeks both speak and believe correctly, saying that the dove is the sacred animal of Aphrodite, the raven of Apollo, the dog of Artemis," and so forth. Each Greek god had a small menagerie of sacred animals, and it may be conjectured that these animals were originally the totems of various stocks, subsumed into the worship of the anthropomorphic god. For the new theory of vegetation spirits and corn spirits see The Golden Bough. Apollo, in any case, is the young and beautiful archer-god of Homer; Artemis, his sister, is the goddess of archery, who takes her pastime in the chase. She holds no considerable place in the Iliad ; in the Odyssey, Nausicaa is compared to her, as to the pure and lovely lady of maidenhood. Her name is commonly connected with 4/>rc^s — pure, unpolluted. Her close relations (un-Homeric) with the bear and bear-worship have suggested a derivation from op/cros — "ApxTejus. In Homer her " gentle shafts " deal sudden and painless death ; she is a beautiful Azrael. A much more important daughter of Zeus in Homer is Athene, the " grey- eyed " or (as some take y\avKunra, rather improbably) the " owl- headed "goddess. Her birth from the head of Zeus is not explicitly alluded to in Homer.8 In Homer, Athene is a warlike maiden, the patron-goddess of wisdom and manly resolution. In the twenty- second book of the Odyssey she assumes the form of a swallow, and she can put on the shape of any man. She bears the aegis, the awful shield of Zeus. Another Homeric child of Zeus, or, according to Hesiod (Th. 927), of Hera alone, is Hephaestus, the lame craftsman and artificer. In the Iliad* will be found some of the crudest Homeric myths. Zeus or Hera throws Hephaestus or Ate out of heaven, as in the Iroquois myth of the tossing from heaven of Ataentsic. There is, as usual, no agreement as to the etymology of the name of Hephaestus. Preller inclines to a connexion with fifflai, to kindle fire, but Max Muller differs from this theory. About the close relations of Hephaestus with fire there can be no doubt. He is a rough, kind, good-humoured being in the Iliad. In the Odyssey he is naturally annoyed by the adultery of his wife, Aphrodite, with Ares. Ares is a god with whom Homer has no sympathy. He is a son of Hera, and detested by Zeus (Iliad, v. 890). He is cowardly in war, and on one occasion was shut up for years in a huge brazen pot. This adventure was even more ignominious than that of Poseidon and Apollo when they were compelled to serve Laomedon for hire. The payment he refused, and threatened to " cut off their ears wjth the sword " (Iliad, xxi. 455). Poseidon is to the sea what Zeus is to the air, and Hades to the underworld in Homer.10 His own view of his social position may be stated in his own words (Iliad, xv. 183, 211). " Three brethren are we, and sons of Cronus, sons whom Rhea bare, even Zeus and myself, and Hades is the third, the ruler of the people in the underworld. And in three lots were all things divided, and each drew a lot of his own,11 and to me fell the hoary sea, and Hades drew the mirky darkness, and Zeus the wide heaven in clear air and clouds, but the earth and high Olympus are yet common to all." • Zeus, however, is, as Poseidon admits, the elder-born, and there- fore the revered head of the family. Thus Homer adopts the system 6 Cf . Preller, Griechische Mythologie,-\. 128, note I, for this and other philological conjectures, 6 The derivation of 'AiriXXui' remains obscure. The derivation of Leto from XoOtiv, and the conclusion that her name means " the concealer " — that is, the night, whence the sun is born — is disputed by Curtius (Preller i. 190, 191, note 4), but appears to be accepted by Max Mtiller (Selected Essays, i. 386) Latinos being derived from the same root as Leto, Latona, the night. 7 Aristotle, H. An. 6; Aelian, N. A. iv. 4. • Her name, as usual, is variously interpreted by various etymolo- gists. 9 xiv. 257; xviii. 395; xix. pi, 132. 10 The root of his name is sought in such words as x6roi and irora/xAs. u We learn from the Odyssey (xiv. 209) that this was the custom of sons on the death of their father. MYTHOLOGY 141 of primogeniture, while Hesiod is all for the opposite and probably earlier custom of Jiingsten-recht, and makes supreme Zeus the youngest of the sons of Cronus. Among the other gods Dionysus is but slightly alluded to in Homer as the son of Zeus and Semele, as the object of persecution, and as connected with the myth of Ariadne. The name of Hermes is derived from various sources, as from ipnav and Apuri, or, by Max Muller, the name is connected with Sarameya (Sky). If he had originally an elemental character, it is now difficult to distinguish, though interpreters connect him with the wind. He is the messenger of the gods, the bringer of good luck, and the conductor of men's souls down the dark ways of death. In addition to the great Homeric gods, the poet knows a whole " Olympian consistory " of deities, nymphs, nereids, sea-gods and goddesses, river-gods, Iris the rainbow goddess, Sleep, Demeter who lay with a mortal, Aphrodite the goddess of love, wife of Hephaes- tus and leman of Ares, and so forth. As to the origin of the gods, Homer is not very explicit. He is acquainted with the existence of an older dynasty now deposed, the dynasty of Cronus and the Titans. In the Iliad (viii. 478) Zeus says to Hera, " For thine anger reck I not, not even though thou go to the nethermost bounds of earth and sea, where sit lapetus and Cronus . . . and deep Tartarus is round about them." " The gods below that are with Cronus " are mentioned (//. xiv. 274; xv. 225). Rumours of old divine wars echo in the Iliad, as (i. 400) where it is said that when the other immortals revolted against and bound Zeus, Thefis brought to his aid Aegaeon of the hundred arms. The streams of Oceanus (//. xiv. 246) are spoken of as the source of all the gods, and in the same book (290) " Oceanus and mother Tethys " are regarded as the parents of the immortals. Zeus is usually called Cronion and Cronides, which Homer certainly understood to mean " son of Cronus," yet it is expressly stated that Zeus " imprisoned Cronus beneath the earth and the unvintaged sea." The whole subject is only alluded to incidentally. On the whole it may be said that the Homeric deities are powerful anthropomorphic beings, departmental rulers, united by the ordinary social and family ties of the Homeric age, capable of pain and pleasure, living on heavenly food, but refreshed by the sacrifices of men (Od. v. 100, 102), able to assume all forms at will, and to intermarry and propagate the species with mortal men and women. Their past has been stormy, and their ruler has attained power after defeating and mediatizing a more ancient dynasty of his own kindred. From Hesiod we receive a much more elaborate — probably a more ancient, certainly a more barbarous — story of the gods and their origin. In the beginning the gods (here used in a wide sense to denote an early non-natural race) were begotten by Earth and Heaven, conceived of as beings with human parts and passions (Hesiod, Theog. 45). This idea recurs in Maori, Vedic and Chinese mythology. Heaven and Earth, united in an endless embrace, produced children which never saw the light. In New Zealand, Chinese, Vedic, Indian and Greek myths the pair had to be sundered.1 Hesiod enumerates the children whom Earth bore " when couched in love with Heaven." They are Ocean, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, lapetus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys and the youngest, Cronus, " and he hated his glorious father." Others of this early race were the Cyclopes, Bronte, Sterope and Arge, and three children of enormous strength, Cottus, Briareus (Aegaeon) and Gyes, each with one hundred hands and fifty heads. Uranus detested his offspring, and hid them in crannies of Earth. Earth excited Cronus to attack the father, whom he castrated with a sickle. From the blood of Uranus (this feature is common in Red Indian and Egyptian myths) were born furies, giants, ash-nymphs and Aphrodite. A number of monsters, as Echidna, Geryon and the hound of hell, were born of the loves of various | elemental powers. The chief stock of the divine species was continued by the marriage of Rhea (probably another form of the Earth) with Cronus. . Their children were Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and Poseidon. All these Cronus swallowed; and this " swallow-myth " occurs in Australia, among the Bushmen, in Guiana, in Brittany (where Gargantua did the swallow-trick) and elsewhere. At last Rhea bore Zeus, and gave Cronus a stone in swaddling bands, which he disposed of in the usual way. Zeus grew up, administered an emetic to Cronus (some say Metis did this), and had the satis- faction of seeing all his brothers and sisters disgorged alive. The stone came forth first, and Pausanias saw it at Delphi (Paus. x. 24). Then followed the wars between Zeus and the gods he had rescued from the maw of Cronus against the gods of the elder branch, the children of Uranus and Gaea — Heaven and Earth. The victory remained with the younger branch, the immortal Olympians of Homer. The system of Hesiod is a medley of later physical speculation and of poetic allegory, with matter which we, at least, regard as savage survivals, like the mutilation of Heaven and the swallow-myth.2 1 See Tylor, Prim. Cult. i. 326. s Bleek, Bushman Folk-Lore, pp. 6-8. Max Muller suggests another theory (Selected Essays, i. 460) : " Kpwos did not exist till long after Z«fcs in Greece." The name KporUav, or Kpovl&Tis, looks like a patronymic. Muller, however, thinks it originally meant only connected with time, existing through all time. Very much later the name was mistaken for a genuine patronymic, In Homer and in Hesiod myths enter the region of literature, and become, as it were, national. But it is probable that the local myths of various cities and temples, of the " sacred chapters " which were told by the priests to travellers and in the mysteries to the initiated, were older in form than the epic and national myths. Of these " sacred chapters " we have fragments and hints in Hero- dotus, Pausanias, in the mythographers, like Apollodorus, in the tragic poets, and in the ancient scholia or notes on the classics. From these sources come almost all the more inhuman, bestial and discreditable myths of the gods. In these we more distinctly perceive the savage element. The gods assume animal forms: Cronus becomes a horse, Rhea a mare; Zeus begets separate families of men in the shape of a bull, an ant, a serpent, a swan. His mistress from whom the Arcadians claim descent becomes a she-bear. It is usual with mythologists to say that Zeus is the " All-Father," and that his amours are only a poetic way of stating that he is the parent of men. But why does he assume so many animal shapes ? Why did various royal houses claim descent from the ant, the swan, the she-bear, the serpent, the horse and so forth ? We have already seen that this is the ordinary pedigree of savage stocks in Asia, Africa, Australia and America, while animals appear among Irish tribes and in Egyptian and ancient English genealogies.* It is a plausible hypothesis that stocks which once claimed descent from animals, sans phrase, afterwards regarded the animals as avatars of Zeus. In the same way " the Minas, a non-Aryan tribe of Rajpu- tana, used to worship the pig; when the Brahmans got a turn at them, the pig became an avatar of Vishnu " (Lyall, Asiatic Studies). The tales of divine cannibalism to which Pindar refers with awe, the mutilation of Dionysus Zagreus, the unspeakable abominations of Dionysus, the loves of Hera in the shape of a cuckoo, the divine powers of metamorphosing men and -women into beasts and stars — these tales come to us as echoes of the period of savage thought. Further evidence on this point will be given below in a classification of the principal mythic legends. The general conclusion is that many of the Greek deities were originally elemental, the elements being personified in accordance with the laws of savage imagina- tions. But we cannot explain each detail in the legends as a myth of this or that natural phenomenon or process as understood by ourselves. Various stages of late and early fancy have contributed to the legends. Zeus is the sky, but not our sky ; he had originally a personal character, and that a savage or barbarous character. He probably attracted into his legend stories that did not origi- nally belong to him. He became anthropomorphic, and his myth was handled by local priests, by family bards, by national poets, by early philosophers. His legend is a complex embroidery on a very ancient tissue. The other divine myths are equally complex. See L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Miss Jane Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion; and Frazer, The Golden Bough, especially as regards the vegetable or " probably arboreal " aspect of Zeus. Scandinavian Divine Myths. — The Scandinavian myths of the gods are numerous and interesting, but the evidence on which they have reached us demands criticism for which we lack space. That there are in the Eddas and Sagas early ideas and later ideas tinged by Christian legend seems indubitable, but philological and historical learning has by no means settled the questions of relative purity and antiquity lin the myths. The Eddie songs, according to F. Y. Powell, one of the editors of the Corpus poeticum septenirionale (the best work on the subject), " cannot date earlier " in their present form " than the 9th century," and may be vaguely placed between A.D. 800-1100. The collector of the fEdda probably had the old poems recited to him in the ijth century, and where there was a break in the memory of the reciters the lacuna was filled up in prose. " As one goes through the poems, one is ever and anon face to face with a myth of the most childish and barbaric type," which " carries one back to prae-Aryan days." Side by side with these old stories come fragments of a different stratum of thought, Christian ideas, the belief in a supreme God, the notion of Doomsday. The Scandinavian cosmogonic myth (with its parallels among races sayage and civilized) is given elsewhere. The most important god is Odin, the son of Bestla and Bor, the husband of Frigg, the father of Balder and many other sons, the head of the Aesir stock of gods. Odin's name is connected with that of Wuotan, and referred to the Old High-German verb watan wuot — meare, cum impetu ferri (Grimm, Tent. Myth., Eng. transl., and " Zeus the ancient of days " became " Zeus the son of Cronus." Having thus got a Cronus, the Greeks — and " the misunderstanding could nave happened in Greece only " — needed a myth of Cronus. They therefore invented or adapted the " swallow-myth " so • familiar to Bushmen and Australians. This singular reversion to savagery itself needs some explanation. But the hypothesis that Cronus is a late derivation from KpowSijs and fLpovluv is by no means universally accepted. Others derive Kp&mt from upaLva, and connect it with icpAwa, a kind of harvest-home festival. Schwartz (Prdhistorisch-anthropologische Studien) readily proves Cronus to be the storm, swallowing the clouds. Perhaps we may say of Schwartz's view, as he says of Preller's — " das ist Gedanken- spiel, aber nimmermehr Mythologie." 1 Elton, Origins of English History, pp. 298-301. 142 MYTHOLOGY i. 131). Odin would thus (if we admit the etymology) be the swift goer, the " ganger," and it seems superfluous to make him (with Grimm) " the all-powerful, all-permeating being," a very abstract and scarcely an early conception. Odin's brethren (in Gylfi's Mocking) are Vile and Ve, who with him slew Ymir the giant, and made all things out of the fragments of his body. They also made man out of two stocks. In the Haya-Mal Odin claims for himself most of the attributes of the medicine-man. In Loka Senna, Loki, the evil god, says that " Odin dealt in magic in Samsey." The goddess Frigg remarks, " Ye should never talk of your old doings before men, of what ye two Aesir went through in old times." But many relics of these " old times," many traces of the medicine-man and the " skin-shifter," survive in the myth of Odin. When he stole Suttung's mead (which answers somewhat to nectar and the Indian soma), he flew away in the shape of an eagle.1 The hawk is sacred to Odin ; one of his names is " the Raven-god." He was usually represented as one-eyed, having left an eye in pawn that he might purchase a draught from Mimir's well. This one eye is often explained as the sun. Odin's wife was Frigg; their sons were Thor (the thunder-god) and Balder, whose myth is well known in English poetry. The gods were divided into two — not always friendly — stocks, the Aesir and Vanir. Their relations are, on the whole, much more amicable than those of the Asuras and Devas in Indian mythology. Not necessarily immortal, the gods restored their vigour by eating the apples of Iduna. Asa Loki was a being of mixed race, half god, half giant, and wholly mischievous ana evil. His legend includes animal metamorphoses of tht most obscene character. In the shape of a mare he became the mother of the eight-legged horse of Odin. He borrowed the hawk-dress of Freya, when he recovered the apples of Iduna. Another Eddie god, Hoene, is described in phrases from lost poems as " the long-legged one," " lord of the ooze," and his name is connected with that of the crane. The con- stant enemies of the gods, the giants, could also assume animal forms. Thus in Thiodolf's Haust-long (composed after the settle- ment of Iceland) we read about a shield on which events from myth- ology were painted; among these was the flight of " giant Thiazzi in an ancient eagle's feathers." The god Herindal and Loki once fought a battle in the shapes of seals. On the whole, the Scan- dinavian gods are a society on an early human model, of beings indifferently human, animal and divine — some of them derived from elemental forces personified, holding sway over the elements, and skilled in sorcery. Probably after the viking days came in the conceptions of the last war of gods, and the end of all, and the theory of Odin All-Father as a kind of emperor in the heavenly world. The famous tree that lives through all the world is regarded as " foreign, Christian, and confined to few poems." There is, almost undoubtedly, a touch of the Christian dawn on the figure and myth of the pure and beloved and ill-fated god Balder, and his descent into hell. The whole subject is beset with critical diffi- culties, and we have chiefly noted features which can hardly be regarded as late, and which correspond with widely distributed mythical ideas. Dasent's Prose or Younger Edda (Stockholm, 1842) ; the Corpus Septentrionale already referred to; C. F. Keary's Mythology of the Eddas (1882) ; Pigott's Manual of Scandinavian Mythology (1838) ; and Laing's Early Kings of Norway may be consulted by English students. Classification of Myths. — It is now necessary to cast a hasty glance over the chief divisions of myths. These correspond to the chief problems which the world presents to the curiosity of untutored men. They ask themselves (and the answers are given in myths) the following questions: What is the Origin of the World ? The Origin of Man ? Whence came the Arts of Life? Whence the Stars? Whence the Sun and Moon? What is the Origin of Death? How was Fire procured by Man? The question of the origin of the marks and characteristics of various animals and plants has also produced a class of myths in which the marks are said to survive from some memorable adventure, or the plants and animals to be metamorphosed human beings. Examples of all these myths are found among savages and in the legends of the ancient civilizations. A few such examples may now be given. Myths of the Origin of the World. — We have found it difficult to keep myths of the gods apart from myths of the origin of the world ana of man, because gods are frequently regarded as creative powers. The origin of things is a problem which has everywhere 1 Indra was a hawk when, " being well-winged, he carried to men the food tasted by the gods " (R. V. iv. 26, 4). Yehl, the Tlingit god-hero, was a raven or a crane when he stole the water (Bancroft iii. 100-102). The prevalence of animals, or of god- animals, in myths of the stealing of water, soma and fire, is very remarkable. Among the Andaman Islanders, a kingfisher steals fire for men from the god Puluga (Anthrop. Journal, November 1882). exercised thought, and been rudely solved in myths. These vary in quality with the civilization of the races in which they are current, but the same ideas which we proceed to state pervade all cosmo- gonical myths, savage and civilized. All these legends waver between the theory of creation, or rather of manufacture, and the theory of evolution. The earth, as a rule, is supposed to have grown out of some original matter, perhaps an animal, perhaps an egg which floated on the waters, perhaps a fragment of soil fished up out of the floods by a beast or a god. But this conception does not exclude the idea that many of the things in the world — minerals, plants, people, and what not — are fragments of the frame of an animal or non-natural magnified man, or are excretions from the body of a god. We proceed to state briefly the various forms of these ideas. The most backward races usually assume the prior existence of the earth. The aborigines of the northern parts of Victoria (Australia) believe that the earth was made by Pund-jel, the bird-creator, who sliced the valleys with a knife. Another Australian theory is that the men of a previous race, the Nooralie (very old ones), made the earth. The problem of the origin of the world seems scarcely to have troubled the Bushmen. They know about " men who brought the sun," but their doctrines are revealed in mysteries, and Qing, the informant of Mr Orpen (Cape Monthly Magazine, July 1874), " did not dance that dance " — that is, had not been initiated into all the secret doctrines of his tribe. According to Qing, creation was the work of Cagn (the mantis insect), " he gave orders and caused all things to appear." Elsewhere in the myth Cagn made or manufactured things by his skill. As a rule the most backward races, while rich in myths of the origin of men, animals, plants, stones and stars, do not say much about the making of the world. Among people a little more ad- vanced, the earth is presumed to have grown out of the waters. In the Iroquois myth (Lafitau, Mcsurs des sauvages, 1724), a heavenly woman was tossed out of heaven, and fell on a turtle, which developed into the world. Another North-American myth assumes a single island in the midst of the waters, and this island grew into the world. The Navaho and the Digger Indians take earth for granted as a starting-point in their myths. The Winnebagos, not untouched by Christian doctrine, do not go farther back. The Great Manitou awoke and found himself alone. He took a piece of his body and a piece of earth and made a man. Here the existence of earth is assumed (Bancroft iv. 228). Even in Guatemala, though the younger sons of a divine race succeed in making the earth where the elder son (as usual) failed, they all had a supply of clay as first material. The Pima, a Central-American tribe, say the earth was made by a powerful being, and at first appeared " like a spider's web." This reminds one of the Ananzi or spider creator of West Africa. The more metaphysical Tacullies of British Columbia say that in the beginning nought existed but water and a musk-rat. The musk-rat sought his food at the bottom of the water, and his mouth was frequently filled with mud. This he kept spitting out, and so formed an island, which developed into the world. Among the Tinneh, the frame of a dog (which could assume the form of a handsome young man) became the first material of most things. The dog, like Osiris, Dionysus, Purusha and other gods, was torn to pieces by giants; the fragments became many of the things in the world (Bancroft i. 106). Even here the existence of earth for the dog to live in is assumed. Coming to races more advanced in civilization, we find the New Zealanders in possession of ancient hymns in which the origin of things is traced back to nothing, to darkness, and to a metaphysical process from nothing to something, from being to becoming. The hymns may be read in Sir George Grey's Polynesian Mythology, and in Taylor's New Zealand. It has been suggested that these hymns bear traces of Buddhist and Indian influence ; in any case, they are rather metaphysical than mystical. Myth comes in when the Maoris represent Rangi and Papa, Heaven and Earth, as two vast beings, male and female, united in a secular embrace, and finally severed by their children, among whom Tane Mahuta takes the part of Cronus in the Greek myth. The gods were partly elemental, partly animal in character; the lists of their titles show that every human crime was freely attributed to them. In the South Sea Islands, generally, the fable of the union and separation of Heaven and Earth is current; other forms will be found in Gill's Myths and Songs from the South Pacific. The cosmogonic myths of the Aryans of India are peculiarly interesting, as we find in the Vedas and Brahmanas and Puranas almost every fiction familiar to savages side by side with the most abstract metaphysical speculations. We have the theory that earth grew, as in the Iroquois story of the turtle, from a being named Uttanapad (Muir v. 335). We find that Brahmanaspati " blew the gods forth from his mouth," and one of the gods, Tvashtri, the mechanic among the deities, is credited with having fashioned the earth and the heaven (Muir v. 354). The " Purusha Sukta," the 9Oth hymn of the tenth book of the Rig Veda, gives us the Indian version of the theory that all things were made out of the mangled limbs of Purusha, a magnified non-natural man, who- was_sacnficed by the gods. As this hymn gives an account of the origin of the castes (which elsewhere are scarcely recognized in the MYTHOLOGY Rig Veda), it is sometimes regarded as a late addition. But we can scarcely think the main conception late, as it is so widely scattered that it meets us in most mythologies, including those of Chaldaea and Egypt, and various North-American trioes. Not satisfied with this myth, the Aryans of India accounted for the origin of species in the following barbaric style. A being named Purusha was alone in the world. He differentiated himself into two beings, husband and wife. The wife, regarding union with her producer as incest, fled from his embraces as Nemesis did from those of Zeus, and Rhea from Cronus, assuming various animal disguises. The husband pursued in the form of the male of each animal, and from these unions sprang the various species of beasts (Satapatha- Brahmana, xiv. 4, 2 ; Muir i. 25). The myth of the cosmic egg from which all things were produced is also current in the Brah- manas. In the Puranas we find the legend of many successive creations and destructions of the world a myth of world-wide distribution. As a rule, destruction by a deluge is the most favourite myth, but destructions by fire and wind and by the wrath of a god are common in Australian, Peruvian and Egyptian tradition. The idea that a boar, or a god in the shape of a boar, fished up a bit of earth, which subsequently became the world, out of the waters, is very well known to the Aryans of India, and recalls the feats of American musk-rats and coyotes already described.1 The tortoise from which all things sprang, in a myth of the Satapatha-Brahmana, reminds us of the Iroquois turtle. The Greek and Mangaian myth of the marriage of Heaven and Earth and its dissolution is found in the Aitareya-Brahmana (Haug's trans, ii. 308; Rig Veda, i. Ixii.). So much for the Indian cosmogonic myths, which are a collection of ideas familiar to savages, blended with sacerdotal theories and ritual mummeries. The philosophical theory of the origin of things, a hymn of remarkable stateliness, is in Rig Veda, x. 129. The Scandinavian cosmogonic myth starts from the abyss, Ginnungagap, a chaos of ice, from which, as it thawed, was produced the giant Ymir. Ymir is the Scandinavian Purusha. A man and woman sprang from his armpit, like Athene from the head of Zeus. A cow licked the hoar-frost, whence rose Bur, whose children, Odin, Vile and Ve, slew the giant Ymir. " Of his flesh they formed the earth, of his blood seas and waters, of his bones mountains, of his teeth rocks and stones, of his hair all manner of plants." This is the story in the Prose Edda, derived from older songs, such as the Grimnersmal. However the distribution of this singular myth may be explained, its origin can scarcely be sought in the imagination of races higher in culture than the Tinneh and Tacullies, among whom dogs and beavers are the theriomorphic form of Purusha or Ymir. , - . ^ Myths of the Origin oj Man. — These partake of the conceptions of evolution and of creation. Man was made out of clay by a super- natural being. Australia: man was made by Pund-jel. New Zealand: man was made by Tiki; " he took red clay, and kneaded it with his own blood." Mangaia: the woman of the abyss made a child from a piace of flesh plucked out of her own side. Melanesia: " man was made of clay, red from the marshy side of Vanua Levu"; woman was made by Qat of willow twigs. Greece: men were irXdoTiara mjXoO, figures baked in clay by Prometheus.8 India: men were made after many efforts, in which the experimental beings did not harmonize with their environment, by Prajapati. In another class of myths, man was evolved out of the lower animals — lizards in Australia; coyotes, beavers, apes and other beasts in America. The Greek myths of the descent of the Arcadians, Myrmidons, children of the swan, the cow, and so forth, may be compared. Yet again, men came out of trees or plants or rocks: as from the Australian wattle-gum, the Zulu bed of reeds, the great tree of the Ovahereros, the rock of the tribes in Central Africa, the cave of Bushman and North-American and Peruvian myth, " from tree or stone " (Odyssey, xix. 163). This view was common among the Greeks, who boasted of being autochthonous. The Cephisian marsh was one scene of man's birth according to a fragment of Pindar, who mentions Egyptian and Libyan legends of the same description. Myths of the Arts of Life. — These are almost unanimously attributed to " culture-heroes," beings theriomorphic or anthropo- morphic, who, like Pund-jel, Qat, Quawteaht, Prometheus, Manabozho, Quetzalcoatl, Cagn and the rest, taught men the use of the bow, the processes (where known) of pottery, agriculture (as Demeter), the due course of the mysteries, divination, and everything else they knew. Commonly the teacher disappears mysteriously. He is often regarded by modern mythologists as the sun. Star Myths. — " The stars came otherwise," says Browning's Caliban. In savage and civilized myths they are usually meta- morphosed men, women and beasts. In Australia, the Pleiades, as in Greece, were girls. Castor and Pollux in Greece, as in Australia, were young men. Our Bear was a bear, according to Charlevoix and Lafitau, among the North-American Indians; the Eskimo, 1 Black Yajur-Veda and Satapatha-Brahmana; Muir, i. 52. 'Aristophanes, Aves, 686; Etym. Magn., s.v. 'lubvwv. Pausanias saw the clay (Paus. x. iv.). The story is also quoted by Lactantius from Hesiod. according to Egede, who settled the Danish colony in Greenland, regarded the stars " very nonsensically," as " so many of their ancestors"; the Egyptian priests showed Plutarch the stars that had been Isis and Osiris. Aristophanes, in the Pax, shows us that the belief in the change of men into stars survived in his own day in Greece. The Bushmen (Bleek) have the same opinion. The Satapatlia-Brahmana (Sacred Books of the East, xii. 284) shows how Prajapati, in his incestuous love, turned himself into a roe- buck, his daughter into a doe, and how both became constellations. This is a thoroughly good example of the savage myths (as in Peru, according to Acosta) by which beasts and anthropomorphic gods and stars are all jumbled together.1 The Rig Veda contains examples of the idea that the good become stars. Solar and Lunar Myths. — These are universally found, and are too numerous to be examined here. The sun and moon, as in the Bulgarian ballad of the Sun's Bride (a mortal girl), are looked on as living beings. In Mexico they were two men, or gods of a human character who were burned. The Eskimo know the moon as a man who visits earth, and, again, as a girl who had her face spotted by ashes which the Sun threw at her. The Khasias make the sun a woman, who daubs the face of the moon, a man. The Homeric hymn to Helios, as Max Miiller observes, " looks on the sun as a half-god, almost a hero, who had once lived on earth." This is precisely the Bushman view; the sun was a man who irradiated light from his armpit. In New Zealand and in North America the sun is a beast, whom adventurers have trapped and beaten. Medicine has been made with his blood. In the Andaman Islands the Sun is the wife of the Moon (Jour, of A nth. Soc., 1882). Among aboriginal tribes in India (Dalton, p. 186) the Moon is the 'Sun's bride; she was faithless and he cut her in two, but occasionally lets her shine in full beauty. The Andaman Islanders account for the white brilliance of the moon by saying that he is daubing himself with white clay, a custom common in savage and Greek mysteries. The Red Men accounted to the Jesuits for the spherical forms of sun and moon by saying that their appearance was caused by their bended bows. The Moon in Greek myths loved Endymion, and was bribed to be the mistress of Pan by the present of a fleece, like the Dawn in Australia, whose unchastity was rewarded by a gift of a red cloak of opossum skin. Solar and lunar myths usually account for the observed phenomena of eclipse, waning and waxing, sunset, spots on the moon, and so forth by various mythical adventures of the animated heavenly beings. In modern folk-lore the moon is a place to which bad people are sent, rather than a woman or a man. The mark of the hare in the moon has struck the imagination of Germans, Mexicans, Hottentots, Sinhalese, and produced myths among all these races.4 Myths of Death. — Few savage races regard death as a natural event. All natural deaths are supernatural with them. Men are assumed to be naturally immortal, hence a series of myths to account for the origin of death. Usually some custom or " taboo " is represented as having been broken, when death has followed. In New Zealand, Maui was not properly baptized. In Australia, a woman was told not to go near a certain tree where a bat lived ; she infringed the prohibition, the bat fluttered out, and men died. The Ningphoos were dismissed from Paradise and became mortal, because one of them bathed in water which had been tabooed (Dalton, p. 13). In the Atharua Veda, Yama, like Maui in New Zealand, first " spied out the path to the other world," which all men after him have taken. In the Rig Veda (x. 14), Yama " sought out a road for many." In the Solomon Islands (Jour. Anth, Inst., Feb. 1 880, " Koevari was the author of death, by resuming her cast-off skin." The same story is told in the Banks Islands. In the Greek myth (Hesiod, Works and Days, 90), men lived without " ill diseases that give death to men " till the cover was lifted from the forbidden box of Pandora. As to the myths of Hades, the place of the dead, they are far too many to be mentioned in detail. In almost all the gates of hell are guarded by fierce beasts, and in Ojibway, Finnish, Greek, Papuan and Japanese myths no mortal visitor may escape from Hades who has once tasted the food of the dead. Myths of Fire-stealing. — Those current in North America (where an animal is commonly the thief) will be found in Bancroft, vol. iv. The Australian version, singularly like one Greek legend, is given by Brough Smyth. Stories of the theft of Prometheus are recorded by Hesiod, Aeschylus, and their commentators. Muir and Kuhn may be consulted for Vedic fire-stealing. Heroic and Romantic Myths. — In addition to myths which are clearly intended to explain facts of the universe, most nations have their heroic and romantic myths. Familiar examples are the stories of Perseus, Odysseus, Sigurd, the Indian epic stories, the adventures of Ilmarinen and Wainamoinen in the Kalewala, and so forth. To discuss these myths as far as they can be considered apart from divine and explanatory tales would demand more space than we have at our disposal. It will become evident to any student of the romantic myths that they consist of different arrange- 1 See also Vishnu Purana, i. 131. 4 See Cornhill Magazine, " How the Stars got their Names " (1882, p. 35), and " Some Solar and Lunar Myths " (1882, p. 440); Max Miiller, Selected Essays, i. 609-611. 144 MYXOEDEMA— MYZOSTOMIDA ments of a rather limited set of incidents. These incidents have been roughly classified by Von Hahn.1 We may modify his arrange- ment as follows. There is (i) the story of a bride or bridegroom who transgresses a commandment of a mystic nature, and disappears as a result of the sin. The bride sins as in Eros and Psyche, Freja and Oddur, Pururavas and Urvasi.2 The sin of Urvasi and Psyche was seeing their husbands — naked in the latter case. The sin was against " the manner of women." Now the rule of etiquette which forbids seeing or naming the husband (especially the latter) is of the widest distribution. The offence in the Welsh form of the story is naming the partner — a thing forbidden among early Greeks and modern Zulus. Presumably the tale (with its example of the sanction) sur- vives the rule in many cases. (2) " Penelope formula." The man leaves the wife and returns after many years. A good example occurs in Chinese legend. (3) Formula of the attempt to avoid fate or the prophecy of an oracle. This incident takes numerous shapes, as in the story of the fatal birth of Perseus, Paris, the Egyptian prince shut up in a tower, the birth of Oedipus. (4) Slaughter of a monster. This is best known in the case of Andro- meda and Perseus. (5) Flight, by aid of an animal usually, from cannibalism, human sacrifice, or incest. The Greek example is Phrixus, Helle, and the ram of the golden fleece. (6) Flight of a lady and her lover from a giant father or wizard father. Jason and Medea furnish the Greek example. (7) The youngest brother the successful adventurer, and the head of the family. We have seen the example of Greek mythic illustrations of " Jungsten- recht," or supremacy of the youngest, in the Hesiodic myth of Zeus, the youngest child of Cronus. (8) Bride given to whoever will accomplish difficult adventures or vanquish girl in race. The custom of giving a bride without demanding bride-price, in reward for a great exploit, is several times alluded to in the Iliad. In Greek heroic myth Jason thus wins Medea, and (in the race) Milanion wins Atalanta. In the Kalewala much of the Jason cycle, including this part, recurs. The rider through the fire wins Brunhild but this may belong to another cycle of ideas. (9) The grateful beasts, who, having been aided by the hero, aid him in his adventures. Melampus and the snakes is a Greek example. This story is but one specimen of the personal human character of animals in myths, already referred to the intellectual condition of savages. (10) Story of the strong man and his adventures, and stories of the comrades Keen-eye, Quick-ear, and the rest. Jason has comrades like these, as had Ilmarinen and Heracles, the Greek " strong man." (ll) Adventure with an ogre, who is blinded and deceived by a pun of the hero's. Odysseus and Polyphemus is the Greek ex- ample. (12) Descent into Hades of the hero. Heracles, Odysseus, Wainamoinen in the Kalewala, are the best-known examples in epic literature. These are twelve specimens of the incidents, to which we may add (13) " the false bride," as in the poem of Berte aux grans Pi6s, and (14) the legend of the bride said to produce beast-children. The belief in the latter phenomenon is very common in Africa, and in the Arabian Nights, and we have seen it in America. Of these formulae (chosen because illustrated by Greek heroic legends) — (l) is a sanction of barbarous nuptial etiquette; (2) is an obvious ordinary incident; (3) is moral, and both (3) and (i) may pair off with all the myths of the origin of death from the infringe- ment of a taboo or sacred command; (4) would naturally occur wherever, as on the West Coast of Africa, human victims have been offered to sharks or other beasts; (5) the story of flight from a horrible crime, occurs in some stellar myths, and is an easy and natural invention; (6) flight from wizard father or husband, is found in Bushman and Namaqua myth, where the husband is an elephant; (7) success of youngest brother, may have been an ex- planation and sanction of " Jiingsten-recht " — Maui in New Zealand is an example, and Herodotus found the story among the Scythians; (8) the bride given to successful adventurer, is consonant with heroic manners as late as Homer; (9) is no less consonant with the belief that beasts have human sentiments and supernatural powers; (10) the " strong man," is found among Eskimo and Zulus, and was an obvious invention when strength was the most admired of qualities; (n) the baffled ogre, is found among Basques and Irish, and turns on a form of punning which inspires an " ananzi " story in West Africa; (12) descent into Hades, is the natural result of the savage conception of Hades, and the tale is told of actual living people in the Solomon Islands and in New Caledonia; Eskimo Angekoks can and do descend into Hades — it is the prerogative of the necromantic magician; (13) "the false bride," found among the Zulus, does not permit of such easy explanation — naturally, in Zululand, the false bride is an animal; (14) the bride accused of bearing beast-children, has already been disposed of; the belief is inevitable where no distinction worth mentioning is taken between men and animals. English folk-lore has its woman who bore rabbits. The formulae here summarized, with others, are familiar in the marchen of Samoyeds, Zulus, Bushmen, Hottentots and Red Indians. For an argument intended to show that Greek heroic • • • 1 Griechische und albanesische Marchen, i. 45. 'Tenth Book of Rig Veda and " Brahmana " of Yajur-Veda; Muller, Selected Essays, i. 410. myths may be adorned and classified marchen, in themselves survivals of savage fancy, see Fortnightly Review, May 1872, " Myths and Fairy Tales." The old explanation was that marchen are degenerate heroic myths. This does not explain the marchen of African, and perhaps not of Siberian races. In this sketch of mythology that of Rome is not included, because its most picturesque parts are borrowed from or adapted into harmony with the mythology of Greece. Greece, India and Scandi- navia will supply a fair example of Aryan mythology (without entering on the difficult Slavonic and Celtic fields). (A. L.) MYXOEDEMA (or athyrea), the medical term for a constitu- tional disease (see METABOLIC DISEASES) due to the degeneration of the thyroid gland, and occurring in adults; it may be con- trasted with cretinism, which is a condition appearing in early childhood. There are two forms, myxoedema proper and opera- tive myxoedema (cachexia sirumipriiia) . (i) Myxoedema has been termed " Gull's Disease" from Sir William Gull's observa- tions in. 1873. Women are more often the victims than men, in a ratio of 6 to i. It frequently affects members of the same family and may be transmitted through the mother, and it has been observed sometimes to follow exophthalmic goitre. The symptoms are a marked increase in bulk and weight of the body, puffy appearance of skin which does not pit on pressure, the line of the features becoming obliterated and getting coarse and broad, the lips thick and nostrils enlarged, with loss of hair, subnormal temperature and marked mental changes. There is striking slowness of thought and action, the memory becomes defective, and the patient becomes irritable and suspicious. In some instances the condition progresses to that of dementia. The thyroid gland itself is diminished in size, and may become completely atrophied and converted into a fibrous mass. The untreated disease is progressive, but the course is slow and the symptoms may extend over 12 to 15 years, death from asthenia or tuberculosis being the most frequent ending. (2) Symptoms similar to the above may follow complete removal of the thyroid gland. Kocher of Bern found that, in the total removal of the gland by operation, out of 408 cases operative myxoedema occurred in 69, but it is thought that if a small portion of the gland is left, or if accessory glands are present, these symptoms will not develop. The treatment of myxoedema is similar to that of cretinism. MYZOSTOMIDA, a remarkable group of small parasitic worms which live on crinoid echinoderms; they were first dis- covered by Leuckart in 1827. Some species, such as Myzostoma cirriferum, move about on the host; others, such as M . glabrum, remain stationary with the pharynx inserted in the mouth of the crinoid. M . deformator gives rise to a " gall " on the arm of the host, one joint of the pinnule growing round the worm so as to enclose it in a cyst (see fig. E) ; whilst M . pulvinar lives actually in the alimentary canal of a species of Antedon. A typical myzostomid (see A, B, C) is of a flattened rounded shape, with a thin edge drawn out into delicate radiating cirri. The skin is ciliated. The dorsal surface is smooth ; ventrally there are five pairs of parapodia, armed with supporting and hooked setae, by means of which the worm adheres to its host. Beyond the parapodia are four pairs of organs, often called suckers, but probably of sensory nature, and comparable to the lateral sense organs of Capitellids (Wheeler). The mouth and cloacal aperture are generally at opposite ends of the ventral surface. The former leads to a protrusible pharynx (B), from which the oesophagus opens into a wide intestinal chamber with branching lateral diver- ticula. There appears to be no vascular system. The nervous system consists of a circumoesophageal nerve, with scarcely differ- entiated brain, joining below a large ganglionic mass no doubt representing many fused ganglia (B). The dorsoventral and the parapodial muscles are much developed, whilst the coelom is re- duced mostly to branched spaces in which the genital produces ripen. Full-grown myzostomids are hermaphrodite. The male organ (C) consists of a branched sac opening to the exterior on each side. The paired ovaries discharge their products into a median coelemic chamber with lateral branches (C), otten called the uterus, from which the ripe ova are discharged by a median dorsal pore into the terminal region of the rectum (cloaca). Into this same cloacal chamber open ventrally a pair of ciliated tubes communicating by funnels with the coelom (Nansen and Wheeler) ; these are possibly nephridia, and excretory in function. The Myzostomida are protandric hermaphrodites, being functional males when small, Hermaphrodite later, and finally MZABITES functional females (Wheeler). Small " males " are in some species constantly associated with large hermaphrodites, but according to Beard there are in some cases true dwarf males, comparable to the complementary males described by Darwin in the Cirripedia. The embryology of Myzostoma has been A, Ventral view of Myzostoma. B, Diagram of Myzostoma, show- ing the nervous and alimen- tary systems. C, Diagram of Myzostoma, show- ing the genital organs (from v. Graf and Wheeler). a, Cloacal aperture. ar, Arm. c. Cirrus. d, " Cloaca." coe.Coelom. ct, Swollen pinnule forming a cyst. f, Intestine and its caeca. Is, Larval setae. m, Mouth. D, Larva of Myzostoma glabrum. (After Beard.) E, Portion of the arm of Penta- crinus, showing a cyst containing Myzostoma. n, Ciliated tube (nephfidium?). o, Opening. ov, Ovary. f, Parapodium. , Pharynx. s, Sense organ. sp, Sperm-sac. vn, Ventral ganglionic mass. cf, Male opening. S , Female opening. studied by Metchnikoff and Beard. Cleavage leads to the formation of an epibolic gastrula and ciliated embryo which hatches as a free-swimming larva remarkably like that of a Polychaete worm (D). The larva is provided with postoral and perianal ciliated bands, and on either side with a bunch of long provisional setae. The mesoderm becomes segmented, and the parapodia subsequently develop from before backwards; but almost all internal traces of segmentation are lost in the adult. The structure and development of the Myzostomida seem to show that they are nearly related to Polychaeta (see CHAETOPODA), though highly modified in relation to their parasitic mode of life. AUTHORITIES. — L. v. Graff, Das Genus Myzostoma (Leipzig, 1877); and " The Myzostomida," Challenger Reports (1884), vol. x. ; E. Metchnikoff, Zeit. Wiss. Zool. (1866), vols. v., xvi.; J. Beard, Mittk. Z. St Neapel (1884), vol. v.; W. M. Wheeler, ibid. (1896), vol. xii. (E. S. G.) MZABITES, or BENI-MZAB, a .confederation of Berber tribes, now under the direct authority of France. Of all the Berber peoples the Mzabites have remained freest from foreign admix- ture. Their own country is a region of the Algerian Sahara, about ico m. south of El-Aghuat. It consists of five oases close together, viz. Ghardaia, Beni-Isguen, El-Ateuf, Melika and Bu Nura, and two isolated oases farther north, Berrian and Guerrara. The total population numbered at the 1906 census 45,996, of whom about 100 were Europeans and a very small proportion Arabs and Jews. The Mzabites are of small and slender figure, with very short necks and under-developed legs. Their faces are flat, with short nose, thick lips and very deep-set eyes, and their complexion pale. Their dress is a shirt of thick wool, usually many-coloured. They are agriculturists, and are also famed as traders. The butchers, fruiterers, bath-house keepers, road-sweepers and carriers of the African littoral from Tangier to Tripoli are nearly all Mzabites. Their industries, too, are highly organized. The Mzabite burnouses and carpets are found throughout North Africa. Their commercial honesty is proverbial. Nearly all read and write Arabic, though in talking among themselves they use the Zenata dialect of the Berber language, for which, in common with other Berber peoples, they have no written form surviving. They are Mahomme- dans, of the Ibadite sect, and are regarded as heretics by the Sunnites. According to tradition the Ibadites, after their overthrow at Tiaret by the Fatimites, took refuge during the loth century in the country to the south-west of Wargla, where they founded an independent state. In 1012, owing to further persecutions, they fled to their present quarters, where they long remained invulnerable. After the capture of El-Aghuat by the French, the Mzabites concluded with the Algerian government, in 1853, a convention by which they engaged to pay an annual con- tribution of £1800 in return for their independence. In Novem- ber 1882 the Mzab country was definitely annexed to Algeria. Ghardaia (pop. 7868) is the capital of the confederation, and next in importance is Beni-Isguen (4916), the chief commercial centre. Since the establishment of French control, Beni-Isguen has become the dep6t for the sale of European goods. French engineers have rendered the oases much more fertile than they used to be by a system of irrigation works. (See also ALGERIA.) See A. Coyne, Le Mzab (Algiers, 1879); Rinn, Occupation du Mzab (Algiers, 1885); Amat, Le M'Zab et les M'Zabites (Paris, 1888). Also ALGERIA and BERBERS. 14-6 N— NABATAEANS NA letter which regularly follows M in the alphabet, and, like it in its early forms has the first limb longer than the others; thus, written from right to left, V\. The Semitic languages gradually diminish the size of the other two limbs, while the Greek and Latin alphabets tend to make all three of equal length. The earliest name of the symbol was Nun, whence comes the Greek ny (vv). The sound of « varies according to the point at which the contact of the tongue with the roof of the mouth is made; it may be dental, alveolar, palatal or guttural. In Sanskrit these four sounds are dis- tinguished by different symbols; the last two occur in com- bination with stops or affricates of the same series. The French or German n when standing by itself is dental, the English alveolar, i.e. pronounced like the English t and d against the sockets of the teeth instead of the teeth themselves. The guttural nasal is written in English ng as in ring; for. the palatal n as in lynch there is no separate symbol. The sound of n stands in the same relation to d as m stands to b; both are ordinarily voiced and the mouth position for both is the same, but in pronouncing n the nasal passage is left open, so that the sound of n can be continued while that of d cannot. This is best observed by pronouncing syllables where the consonant comes last as in and id. When the nasal passage is closed, as when one has a bad cold, m and n cannot be pronounced; attempts to pronounce moon result only hi hood. Two important points arise in connexion with nasals: (i) sonant nasals, (2) nasalization of vowels. The discovery of sonant nasals by Dr Karl Brugman in 1876 (Curtius, Studien, 9, pp. 285-338) explained many facts of language which had been hitherto obscure and elucidated many difficulties in the Indo-European vowel system. It had been observed, for ex- ample, that the same original negative prefix was represented in Sanskrit by a, Greek by a, in Latin by in and in Germanic by un, and these differences had not been accounted for satisfactorily. Dr Brugman argued that in these and similar cases the syllable was made by the consonant alone, and the nasal so used was termed a sonant nasal and written n. In most cases Sanskrit and Greek lost the nasal sound altogether and replaced it by a vowel a, a, while in Latin and Germanic a vowel was developed independently before the nasal. In the accusative singular of consonant stems Sans, pddant, Gr. irbSa, Lat. pedem, Sanskrit and Greek did not, as generally, agree, but it was shown that in such cases there were originally two forms according to the nature of the sound beginning the next word in the sentence. Thus an original Indo-European *pedm, would not be treated precisely in the same way if the next word began with a vowel as it would when a consonant followed. Sanskrit had adopted the form used before vowels, Greek the form before consonants and each had dropped the alternative form. The second point — the nasalizing of vowels — is difficult for an Englishman to under- stand or to produce, as the sounds do not exist in his language. Thus in learning to pronounce French he tends to replace the nasalized vowels by the nearest sounds in English, making the Fr. on a nasalized vowel (o), into Eng. ong, a vowel followed by a guttural consonant. The nasalized vowels are produced by drawing forward the uvula, the " tab " at the end of the soft palate, so that the breath escapes through the nose as well as the mouth. In the French nasalized vowels, however, many phoneticians hold that, besides the leaving of the nasal passage open, there is a change in the position of the tongue in passing from a to a. The nasalized vowels are generally written with a hook below, upon the analogy of the transliteration of such sounds in the Slavonic languages, but as the same symbol is often used to distinguish an " open " vowel from a " close " one, the use is not without ambiguity. On the other hand, it is not admissible to write a for the nasalized vowel in languages which have accent signs, e.g. Lithuanian. It is possible to nasalize some consonants as well as vowels; nasalized spirants play an important part in the so-called " Yankee " pronunciation of Americans. (P. Gi.) NAAS (pron. Nace, as in place), a market town of Co. Kildare, Ireland, 20 m. S.W. from Dublin on branches of the Great Southern and Western railway and of the Grand Canal. Pop. (1901) 3836. It is situated among the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains, close to the river Liffey. The town is of great antiquity, and was a residence of the kings of Leinster, the place of whose assemblies is marked by a neighbouring rath or mound. Naas returned two members to the Irish parliament from 1559 until the union in 1800. Of a castle taken by Cromwell in 1650, and of several former abbeys, there are no remains. Punchestown racecourse, 2^ m. S.E., is the scene of well-known steeplechases. NABATAEANS, a people of ancient Arabia, whose settlements in the time of Josephus (Ant. i. 12. 4; comp. Jerome, Quaesl. in Gen. xxv.) gave the name of Nabatene to the border-land between Syria and Arabia from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Josephus suggests, and Jerome, apparently following him, affirms, that the name is identical with that of the Ishmaelite tribe of Nebaioth (Gen. xxv. 13; Isa. Ix. 7), which in later Old Testament times had a leading place among the northern Arabs, and is associated with Kedar (Isa. Ix. 7) much as Pliny v. u (12) associates Ndbataei and Cedrei. The identification is rendered uncertain by the fact that the name Nabataean is properly spelled with t not / (on the inscriptions, cf. also Arabic Nabat, Nabit, &c.). Thus the history of the Nabataeans cannot certainly be carried back beyond 312 B.C., at which date they were attacked without success by Antigonus I. Cyclops in their mountain fortress of Petra. They are described by Diodorus (xix. 94 seq.) as being at this time a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, pre-eminent among the nomadic Arabs, eschewing agriculture, fixed houses and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits a profitable trade with the seaports in myrrh and spices from Arabia Felix, as well as a trade with Egypt in bitumen from the Dead Sea. Their arid country was the best safeguard of their cherished liberty; for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water which they excavated in the rocky or argillaceous soil were carefully concealed from invaders. Petra (q.v.) or Sela' was the ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to press forward into southern Judaea.1 This migration, the date of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the shores of the Gulf of 'Akaba and the important harbour of Elath. Here, according to Agatharchides (Geog. Gr. Min., i. 178), they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and the East, till they were chastised by the Greek sovereigns of Alexandria. The Nabataeans had already some tincture of foreign culture when they first appear in history. That culture was naturally Aramaic; they wrote a letter to Antigonus " in Syriac letters," and Aramaic continued to be the language of their coins and inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom, and profited by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward over the more fertile country east of the Jordan. They occupied IJauran, and about 85 B.C. their king Aretas (Haritha) became lord of Damascus and Coele-Syria. Allies of the first Hasmonaeans in their struggles against the Greeks (i Mace, v. 25, ix. 35; 2 Mace. v. 8), they became the rivals of the Judaean dynasty in the period of its splendour, and a chief element in the disorders which invited Pompey's intervention in Palestine. The Roman arms were not very successful, and King Aretas retained his whole possessions, including Damascus, as a Roman 1 See EDOM, and (for the view that Mai. i. 1-5, refers to the expulsion of Edomites from their land) MALACHI. NABBES— NACHMANIDES vassal.1 As " allies " of the Romans the Nabataeans continued to flourish throughout the first Christian century. Their power extended far into Arabia, particularly along the Red Sea; and Petra was a meeting-place of many nations, though its commerce was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from Myoshormus to Coptos on the Nile. Under the Roman peace they lost their warlike and nomadic habits, and were a sober, acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agri- culture (Strabo xvi. 4). They might have long been a bulwark between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert but for the^short- sighted cupidity of Trajan, who reduced Petra and broke up the Nabataean nationality (105 A.D.). The new Arab invaders who soon pressed forward into their seats found the remnants of the Nabataeans transformed into fellahin, and speaking Aramaic like their neighbours. Hence Nabataeans became the Arabic name for Aramaeans, whether in Syria or Irak, a fact which has been incorrectly held to prove that the Nabataeans were origin- ally Aramaean immigrants from Babylonia. It is now known, however, that they were true Arabs — as the proper names on their inscriptions show — who had come under Aramaic influence. See especially on this last point (against Quatremere, Journ. asiat. xv., vol. ii., 1835), Noldeke in Zeit. d. morgenldnd. Gesell. xvii. 705 seq., xxv. 122 seq. The so-called " Nabataean Agriculture " (Falaha Nabaflya), which professes to be an Arabic translation by Ibn Wabshiya from an ancient Nabataean source, is a forgery of the loth century (see A. von Gutschmid, Z. d. morgenl. Ges. xv. i seq.; Noldeke, ib. xxix. 445 seq.). Complete bibliographical information is given by E. Schurer in his sketch of Nabataean history appended to Gesch. d. Jud. Volkes (1901, vol. i. ; cf. Eng. edition, 1890, i. 2, pp. 345 sqq.) ; to this may be added the article by H. Vincent, Rev. bibl. vii. 567 sqq., and, for more general informa- tion, R. Dussaud, Les Arabes en Syrie (1907). For early external evidence see H. Winckler, Keil. u. Alte Test.* p. 151 seq.; M. Streck, Mitten, d. vorderasial. Gesell. (1906). pt. iii., and Klio, 1906, p. 206 seq. The Nabataean inscriptions (see SEMITIC LANGUAGES) are collected in the Corpus Inscr. Semiticarum of the French Academy, pt. ii. ; see also the Academy's Repertoire d'epigr. sent. ; and the discussions, &c., in the writings of Clermont-Ganneau (Rec. d'archeol. Orient.) and M. Lidzbarski (Handbuch d. nord-semit. Epig.; Ephemeris f. sent. Epig.). For English readers the selection in G. A. Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) is the most useful. (W. R. S.;S. A. C.) NABBES, THOMAS (b. 1605), English dramatist, was born in humble circumstances in Worcestershire. He entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1621, but left the university without taking a degree, and about 1630 began a career in London as a dramatist. His works include: Covent Garden (acted 1633, printed 1638), a prose comedy of small merit; Tottenham Court (acted 1634, printed 1638), a comedy the scene of which is laid in a holiday resort of the London tradesmen; Hannibal and Scipio (acted 1635, printed 1637), a historical tragedy; The Bride (1638), a comedy; The Unfortunate Mother (1640), an unacted tragedy; Microcosmus, a Morall Maske (printed 1637) ; two other masques, Spring's Glory and Presentation intended for the Prince his Highnesse on his Birthday (printed together in 1638); and a continuation of Richard Knolles's Generall Historic of the Turkes (1638). His verse is smooth and musical, and if his language is sometimes coarse, his general attitude is moral. The masque of Microcosmus — really a morality play, in which Physander after much error is reunited to his wife Bellanima, who personifies the soul — is admirable in its own kind, and the other two masques, slighter in construction but ingenious, show Nabbes at his best. Nabbes's plays were collected in 1639; and Microcosmus was printed in Dodsley's Old Plays (1744). All his works, with the exception of his continuation of Knolles's history, were reprinted by A. H. Bullen in his Old English Plays (second series, 1887). See also F. G. Fleay, Biog. Chron. of the English Drama (1891). NABHA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. Area, 966 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 297,949. Its territories are scattered; one section, divided into twelve separate tracts, lies among the territories of Patiala and Jind, in the east and south of the Punjab; the other section is in the extreme south-east. The whole of the territories belong physically to a plain; but they vary in character from the great fertility of the Pawadh region to the aridity of the Rajputana desert. Nabha is one of the Sikh 1 Compare 2 Cor. xi. 32. The Nabataean Aretas or Aeneas there mentioned reigned from 9 B.C. to A.D. 40. states, founded by a member of the Phulkian family, which estab- lished its independence about 1763. The first relations of the state with the British were in 1807-1808, when the raja obtained protection against the threatened encroachments of Ranjit Singh. During the Mutiny in 1857 the raja showed distinguished loyalty, and was rewarded by grants of territory to the value of over £10,000. The imperial service troops of the raja Hira Singh (b. c. 1843; succeeded in 1871) did good service during the Tirah campaign of 1897-98. The chief products of the state are wheat, millets, pulses, cotton and sugar. The estimated gross revenue is £100,000; no tribute is paid. The territory is crossed by the main line and also by several branches of the North- Western railway, and is irrigated by the Sirhind canal. The town of Nabha, founded in 1755, has a station on the Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of the North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 18,468. See Phulkian States Gazetteer (Lahore, 1909). NABIGHA DHUBYANl [Ziyad ibn Mu'awlyya] (6th and 7th centuries), Arabian poet, was one of the last poets of pre-Islamic times. His tribe, the Bani Dhubyan, belonged to the district near Mecca, but he himself spent most of his time at the courts of Hira and Ghassan. In Hira he remained under Mondhir (Mund- hir) III., and under his successor in 562. After a sojourn at the court of Ghassan, he returned to Hira under Nu'man. He was, however, compelled to flee to Ghassan, owing to some verses he had written on the queen, but returned again about 600. When Nu'man died some five years later he withdrew to his own tribe. The date of his death is uncertain, but he does not seem to have known Islam. His poems consist largely of eulogies and satires, and are concerned with the strife of Hira and Ghassan, and of the Bani Abs and the Bani Dhubyan. He is one of the six eminent pre-Islamic poets whose poems were collected before the middle of the 2nd century of Islam, and have been regarded as the standard of Arabian poetry. Some writers consider him the first of the six. His poems have been edited by W. Ahlwardt in the Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and separately by H. Derenbourg (Paris, 1869, a reprint from the Journal asiatique for 1868). (G.W.T.) NABOB, a corruption of the Hindostani nawab, originally used for native rulers. In the i8th century, when Clive's victories made Indian terms familiar in England, it began to be applied to Anglo-Indians who returned with fortunes from the East. NABUA, a town in the extreme S. of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about 22 m. S.S.E. of Nueva Caceres, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,893. Nabua is in the district known as La Rinconada — a name originally given to it on account of its inaccessibility. It is connected by road, railway and the Bicol river (navigable for light-draft boats) with Nueva Caceres. Nabua is the centre of an agricultural region, which produces much rice and some Indian corn, sugar and pepper. The language is Bicol. NACAIRE, NAKER, NAQUAIRE (Arab, naqara), the medieval name for the kettledrum, the earliest representation of which appears in the unique MS. known as the Vienna Genesis (sth or 6th century). The nacaire was, according to Froissart, among the instruments used at the triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais. The Chronicles of Joinville describe the instrument as a kind of drum: " Lor il fist sonner les labours que 1'on appelle nacaires." Chaucer, in his description of the tournament in the Knight's Tale, line 1653, also refers to this early kettledrum. NACHMANIDES (NA^MANIDES), the usual name of MOSES BEN NAHMAN (known also as RAMBAN), Jewish scholar, was born in Gerona in 1194 and died in Palestine c. 1270. His chief work, the Commentary on the Pentateuch, is distinguished by originality and charm. The author was a mystic as well as a philologist, and his works unite with peculiar harmony the qualities of reason and feeling. He was also a Talmudist of high repute, and wrote glosses on various Tractates, Responsa and other legal works. Though not a philosopher, he was drawn into the controversy that arose over the scholastic method of Maimonides (?.».). He endeavoured to steer a middle course between the worshippers 148 NACHOD— NADIA and the excommunicators of Maimonides, but he did not succeed in healing the breach. His homiletic books, Epistle on Sanctity (Iggereth ha-qodesh) and Law of Man (Torath ha-Adam), which deal respectively with the sanctity of marriage and the solemnity of death, are full of intense spirituality, while at the same time treating of ritual customs — a combination which shows essential Rabbinism at its best. He occupies an important position in the history of the acceptance by medieval Jews of the Kabbala (q.v.); for, though he made no fresh contributions to the philo- sophy of mysticism, the fact that this famous rabbi was himself a mystic induced a favourable attitude in many who would other- wise have rejected mysticism as Maimonides did. In 1263 Nahmanides was forced to enter into a public disputation with a Jewish-Christian, Pablo Christiani, in the presence of King James of Aragon. Though Nachmanides was assured that perfect freedom of speech was conceded to him, his defence was pronounced blasphemous and he was banished for life. In 1267 he went to Palestine and settled at Acre. He died about 1270. See S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, first series, pp. 120 seq.; Graetz, History of the Jews (English translation vol. iii. ch. xvi. and xvii.). (I. A.) NACHOD, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 109 m. E.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9899, mostly Czech. It is situated on the Mettau river, at the entrance of the Lewin-Nachod pass. The old castle contains a collection of historical paintings and archives, and there are several old churches, of which that of St Lawrence is mentioned as the parish church in 1350. The town originally gathered round the castle of Nachod, of which the first lord was a member of the powerful family of Hron, in the middle of the i3th century. It suffered much during the Hussite Wars, and in 1437 was captured by the celebrated robber knight Kolda of 2ampach, and retaken by George of Podebrad in 1456 and included in his estates. It was sold in 1623, and in 1634 given to Ottavio Piccolomini; finally, after many changes of ownership, the castle and titular lordship came in 1840 to the princes of Schaumburg-Lippe. The important engagements fought near the town on the 27th and 28th of June 1866 opened Bohemia to the victorious Prussians. NACHTIGAL, GUSTAV (1834-1885), German explorer in Central Africa, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at Eichstedt in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 23rd of February 1834. After medical study at the universities of Halle, Wurzburg and Greifswald, he practised for a few years as a military surgeon. Finding the climate of his native country injurious to his health, he went to Algiers and Tunis, and took part, as a surgeon, in several expeditions into the interior. Commissioned by the king of Prussia to carry gifts to the sultan of Bornu in acknowledgment of kindness shown to German travellers, he set out in 1869 from Tripoli, and succeeded after two years' journeyings in accomplishing his mission. During this period he visited Tibesti and Borku, regions of the central Sahara not previously known to Europeans. From Bornu he went to Bagirmi, and, proceeding by way of Wadai and Kordofan, emerged from darkest Africa, after having been given up for lost, at Khartum in the winter of 1874. His journey, graphically described in his Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., 1879-1889), placed the intrepid explorer in the front rank of discoverers. On the establishment of a protectorate over Tunisia by France, Nachtigal was sent thither as consul-general for the German empire, and remained there until 1884, when he was despatched by Prince Bismarck to West Africa as special commissioner, ostensibly to inquire into the condition of German commerce, but really to annex territories to the German flag. As the result of his mission Togoland and Cameroon were added to the German empire. On his return voyage he died at sea off Cape Palmas on the 2oth of April 1885, and was buried at Grand Bassam. Nachtigal's travels are summarized in Gustav Nachtigal's Reisen in der Sahara und im Sudan, by Dr Albert Frankel (Leipzig, 1887). A French translation, by J. van Vollenhoven, of that part of his work concerning Wadai, appeared in the Butt, du comite del'Afriq. frangaise for 1903 under the title of " Le Voyage de Nachtigal au Ouadai." Nachtigal died before transcribing his notes on Wadai, and they were edited in the German edition by E. Groddeck. NADASDY, TAMAS I., COUNT, called the great palatine (1498-1562), Hungarian statesman, was the son of Francis I. Nadasdy and was educated at Graz, Bologna and Rome. In 1521 he accompanied Cardinal Cajetan (whom the pope had sent to Hungary to preach a crusade against the Turks) to Buda as his interpreter. In 1525 he became a member of the council of state and was sent by King Louis II. to the diet of Spires to ask for help in the imminent Turkish war. During his absence the Mohacs catastrophe took place, and Nadasdy only returned to Hungary in time to escort the queen-widow from Komarom to Pressburg. He was sent to offer the Hungarian crown to the archduke Ferdinand, and on his coronation (Nov. 3rd, 1527) was made commandant of Buda. On the capture of Buda by Suleiman the Magnificent, Nadasdy went over to John Zapolya. In 1530 he successfully defended Buda against the imperialists. In 1533 his jealousy of the dominant influence of Ludovic Gritti caused him to desert John for Ferdinand, to whom he afterwards remained faithful. He was endowed with enormous estates by the emperor,'- and from 1537 onwards became Ferdinand's secret but most influential counsellor. Subsequently, as ban of Croatia-Slavonia, he valiantly defended that border province against the Turks. He did his utmost to promote education, and the school which he founded at tJj-Sziget, where he also set up a printing-press, received a warm eulogy from Philip Melanchthon. In 1 540 Nadasdy was appointed grand- justiciar; in 1547 he presided over the diet of Nagyszombat, and finally, in 1 5 59, was elected palatine by the diet of Pressburg. In his declining years he aided the heroic Miklos Zrinyi against the Turks. See Mihaly Horvath, The Life of Thomas Nddasdy (Hung.) (Buda, 1838) ; T. Nadasdy, Family correspondence of Thomas Nddasdy (Hung.) (Budapest, 1882). ' (R. N. B.) NADEN, CONSTANCE CAROLINE WOODHILL (1858-1889), English author, was born at Edgbaston, on the 24th of January 1858, her father being an architect. Her mother died just after the child's birth, and Constance was brought up in the home of her grandfather. In 1881 she began to study physical science at Mason College, Birmingham. In 1881 she published Songs and Sonnets of Springtime; in 1887, A Modern Apostle, and other Poems. Her poems made such an impression on W. E. Gladstone that he included her, in an article in the Speaker, among the fore- most English poetesses of the day. After her grandfather's death Miss Naden found herself rich, and she travelled in the East and then (1888) settled in London. She died on the 23rd of December 1889. After 1876 she had paid increasing attention to philosophy, with her friend Dr Robert Lewins, and the two had formulated a system of their own, which they called " Hylo- Idealism." Her main ideas on the subject are contained in a posthumous volume of her essays (Induction and Deduction, 1890), edited by Dr Lewins. NADIA, or NUDDEA, a district of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The administrative head- quarters are at Krishnagar. Area, 2793 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 1,667,491. It is a district of great rivers. Standing at the head of the Gangetic delta, its alluvial surface, though still liable to periodical inundation, has been raised by ancient deposits of silt sufficiently high to be permanent dry land. Along the entire north-eastern boundary flows the main stream of the Ganges or Padma, of which all the remaining rivers of the district are offshoots. The Bhagirathi on the eastern border, and the Jalangi and the Matabhanga meandering through the centre of the district, are the chief of those offshoots, called distinctively the " Nadia rivers." But the whole surface of the country is interlaced with a network of minor streams, communicating with one another by side channels. All the rivers are navigable in the rainy season for boats of the largest burthen, but during the rest of the year they dwindle down to shallow streams, with dangerous sandbanks and bars. In former times the Nadia rivers afforded the regular means of communication between the upper valley of the Ganges and the seaboard; and much of the trade of the district still comes down to Calcutta by this route during the height of the rainy season. But the railways, NADIM— NAEVIUS 149 with the main stream of the Ganges and the Sundarbans route, now carry by far the larger portion of the traffic. Rice is the staple crop; but the district is not as a whole fertile, the soil being sandy and the methods of cultivation backward. It is traversed by the main line and also by several branches of the Eastern Bengal railway. The battlefield of Plassey was situated in this district, but the floods of the Bhagirathi have washed away some part of it. NADIA or NABADWIP, an ancient capital of Bengal, was formerly situated on the east bank of the Bhagirathi, which has since changed its course. Pop. (1901) 10,880. It is celebrated for the sanctity and learning of its pundits, and as the birthplace of Chaitanya, the Vaishnav reformer of the i6th century. Its Sanskrit schools, called Ms, are well known and of ancient foundation. NADIM [Abulfaraj Mahommed ibn Ishaq ibn abi Ya'qub un-Nadim] (d. 995), of Bagdad, the author of one of the most interesting works in Arabic literature, the Fihrist ul-*Ulum (" list of the books of all nations that were to be found in Arabic ") with notices of the authors and other particulars, carried down to the year 988. A note in the Leiden MS. places the death of the author eight years later. Of his life we know nothing. His work gives us a complete picture of the most active intellectual period of the Arabian empire. He traces the rise and growth of philology and belles-lettres, of theology, orthodox and heretical, of law and history, of mathematics and astronomy, of medicine and alchemy; he does not despise the histories of knights errant, the fables of Kalila and Dimna, the facetiae of the " boon com- panions." the works of magic and divination. But to us no part of his work is more interesting than his account of the beliefs of sects and peoples beyond Islam. Here, fortunately, still more than in other parts of his work, he goes beyond the functions of the mere cataloguer; he tells what he learned of China from a Christian missionary of Nejran, of India from a de- scription of its religion compiled for the Barmecide Yahya; his full accounts of the Sabians of Harran and of the doctrines of Mani are of the first importance for the historian of Asiatic religions. Imperfect manuscripts of the Fihrist exist in Paris, Leiden and Vienna. The text was prepared for publication by G. Flugel, and edited after his death by J. Rodiger and A. Miiller (2 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1872). Fliigel had already given a full analysis of the work in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, vol. xiii. (1859), pp. 559-650; cf. E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia (London, 1902), pp. 383-587. T. Houtsma supplied a lacuna in Fliigel's edition in the Vienna Oriental Journal, vol. iv. pp. 217 sqq. NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for nafir-es-semt, " opposite to the zenith "), a term used in astronomy for the point in the heavens exactly opposite to the zenith, the zenith and nadir being the two poles of the horizon. It is thus used figuratively of the lowest depth of a person's spirits or the lowest point in a career. NAEGELI, KARL WILHELM VON (1817-1891), Swiss botanist, was born on the 27th of March 1817 near Zurich. He studied botany under A. P. de Candolle at Geneva, and graduated with a botanical thesis at Zurich in 1840. His attention having been directed by M. J. Schleiden, then professor of botany at Jena, to the microscopical study of plants, he engaged more particularly in that branch of research. Soon after graduation he became Privat dozent and subsequently professor extra- ordinary, in the university of Zurich; in 1852 he was called to fill the chair of botany in the university of Freiburg-in- Breisgau; and in 1857 he was promoted to Munich, where he remained as professor until his death on the nth of May 1891. Among his more important contributions to science were a series of papers in the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftlicke Botanik (1844- 1846); Die neuern Algensysteme (1847); Gattungen einzelliger A I gen (1849); Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchungen (1855- 1858), with C. E. Cramer; Beitrage zur wissenschaftlichen Botanik (1858-1868); a number of papers contributed to the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, forming three volumes of Botanische Mitteilungen (1861-1881); and, finally, his volume, Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre, pub- lished in 1884. The more striking of his many and varied discoveries are embodied in the Zeitsch.fiir iviss. Bot. In this we begin with Naegeli's extension of Robert Brown's discovery of the nucleus to the principal families of Cryptogams, and the assertion of its universal occurrence in plants, together with the recognition of its vesicular structure. There is further his investigation of the " mucous layer " (Schleimschicht) lining the wall of all normal cells, where he shows that it consists of granular " mucus," which, at an earlier stage, filled the cell-cavitv, and which differs chemically from the cell-wall in that it is nitro- genous. This layer he proved to be never absent from living cells — to be, in fact, itself the living part of the cell, a discovery which was simultaneously (1846) made by Hugo von Mohl (1805-1872), who gave to the living matter of the plant-body the name " protoplasm." In connexion with these discoveries, Naegeli controverted Schleiden's view of the universality of free-cell-formation as the mode of cell- multiplication, and showed that in the vegetative organs, at least, new cells are formed by division. In the Zeitschrift, too, is Naegeli's most important algological work — such as the paper on Caulerpa, which brought to Tight the remarkable unseptate structure of the Siphoneae, and his research on Delesseria, which resulted in the discovery of growth by a single apical cell. This discovery led Naegeli on to the study of the growing-point in other plants. He consequently gave the first accurate account of the apical cell, and of the mode of growth of the stem in various Mosses and Liverworts. Subsequently he observed that in Lycopodium and in Angiosperms the growing-point has no apical cell, but consists of a small-celled meristem, in which the first differentiation of the permanent tissues can be traced. One of the most remarkable discoveries recorded in the Zeitschrift is that of the antheridia and spermatozoids of Ferns and of Pilularia. The Beitrage zur miss. Botanik consists almost entirely of researches into the anatomy of vascular plants, while the main feature of the Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchungen is the exhaustive work on the structure, development and various forms of starch-grains. The Botanische Mitteilungen include a number of papers in all departments of botany, many of them being continuations and extensions of his earlier work. In his Theorie der Abstammungslehre Naegeli introduced the idea of a definite material basis for heredity; the substance he termed " idioplasm." His theory of evolution is that the idioplasm of any one generation is not identical with that of either its progenitors or its progeny: it is always increasing in complexity, with the result that each succes- sive generation marks an advance upon its predecessor. Hence variation takes place determinately, and in the higher direction only ; while variability is the result of internal causes, and natural selection plays but a small part in evojution. Whereas, on the Darwinian theory, all organization is adaptive, according to Naegeli the develop- ment of higher organization is the outcome of the spontaneous evolution of the idioplasm. More detailed accounts of Naegeli's life and work are to be found in Nature, i6th October 1891, and in Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. li. (S. H. V.*) NAESTVED, a town of Denmark, in the ami (county) of Praesto, near the S.W. coast of Zealand, 59 m. by rail S.W. of Copenhagen. Pop. (1901) 7162. From 1140 to the Reformation it was one of the most important towns of the kingdom, though dependent upon the monastery of St Peter (founded here in 1135). North of the town (ij m.) lies Herlufsholm, where Admiral Herluf Trolle founded a Latin school in 1567, still extant. NAEVIUS, GNAEUS (c. 264-? 194 B.C.), Latin epic poet and dramatist. There is great uncertainty in regard to his life. From the expression of Gellius (i. 24. i) characterizing his epitaph as written in a vein of " Campanian arrogance " it has been inferred that he was born in one of the Latin communities settled in Campania. But the phrase " Campanian arrogance " seems to have been used proverbially for "gasconade"; and, as there was a plebeian gens Naevia in Rome, it is quite as probable that he was by birth a Roman citizen. He served either in the Roman army or among the socii in the first Punic War, and thus must have reached manhood before 241. His career as a dramatic author began with the exhibition of a drama in or about the year 235, and continued for thirty years. Towards the close he incurred the hostility of some of the nobility, espe- cially, it is said, of the Metelli, by the attacks which he made upon them on the stage, and at their instance he was imprisoned (Plautus, Mil. Glor. 211). After writing two plays during his imprisonment, in which he is said to have apologized for his former rudeness (Gellius iii. 3. 15), he was liberated through the interference of the tribunes of the commons; but he had shortly afterwards to retire from Rome (in or about 204) to Utica. It may have been during his exile, when withdrawn from his active career as a dramatist, that he composed or completed his NAEVUS— NAGA HILLS poem on the first Punic war. Probably his latest composition was the epitaph already referred to, written like the epic in Saturnian verse: — " Immortales mortales si foret fas flere, Flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam ; Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro Obhti sunt Romai loquier lingua Latina." l If these lines were dictated by a jealousy of the growing ascend- ancy of Ennius, the life of Naevius must have been prolonged considerably beyond 204, the year in which Ennius began his career as an author in Rome. As distinguished from Livius Andronicus, Naevius was a native Italian, not a Greek; he was also an original writer, not a mere adapter or translator. If it was due to Livius that the forms of Latin literature were, from the first, moulded on those of Greek literature, it was due to Naevius that much of its spirit and substance was of native growth. Like Livius, Naevius professed to adapt Greek tragedies and comedies to the Roman stage. Among the titles of his tragedies are Aegisthus, Lycurgus, Andromache or Hector Proficiscens, Equus Trojanus, the last named being performed at the opening of Pompey's theatre (55). The national cast of his genius and temper was shown by his deviating from his Greek originals, and producing at least two specimens of the fabula praetexta (national drama) one founded on the childhood of Romulus and Remus (Lupus or Alimonium Rpmuli et Remi), the other called Clastidium, which celebrated the victory of M. Claudius Marcellus over the Celts (222). But it was. as a writer of comedy that he was most famous, most productive and most original. _While he is never ranked as a writer of tragedy with Ennius, Pacuvius or Accius, he is placed in the canon of the grammarian Vplcacius Sedigitus third (immediately after Caecilius and Plautus) in the rank of Roman comic authors. He is there characterized as ardent and impetuous in character and style. He is also appealed to, with Plautus and Ennius, as a master of his art in one of the prologues of Terence. His comedy, like that of Plautus, seems to have been rather a free adaptation of his originals than a rude copy of them, as those of Livius probably were, or an artistic copy like those of Terence. The titles of most of them, like those of Plautus, and unlike those of Caecilius and Terence, are Latin, not Greek. He drew from the writers of the old political comedy of Athens, as well as from the new comedy of manners, and he attempted to make the stage at Rome, as it had been at Athens, an arena of political and personal warfare. A strong spirit of partisanship is recognized in more than one of the fragments; and this spirit is thoroughly popular and adverse to the senatorial ascendancy which became more and more confirmed with the progress of the second Punic war. Besides his attack on the Metelli and other members of the aristocracy, the great Scipio is the object of a censorious criticism on account of a youthful escapade attributed to him. Among the few lines still remaining from his lost comedies, we seem to recognize the idiomatic force and rapidity of movement characteristic of the style of Plautus. There is also found that love of alliteration which is a marked feature in all the older Latin poets down even to Lucretius. In one considerable comic fragment attributed to him — the description of a coquette — there is great truth and shrewdness of observation. But we find no trace of the exuberant comic power and geniality of his great con- temporary. He was not only the oldest native dramatist, but the first author of an epic poem (Bellum Punicum) — which, by combining the representation of actual contemporary history with a mythical background, may be said to have created the Roman type of epic poetry. The poem was one continuous work, but was divided into seven books by a grammarian of a later age. The earlier part of it treated of the mythical adventures of Aeneas in Sicily, Carthage and Italy, and borrowed from the interview of Zeus and Thetis in the first book of the Iliad the idea of the interview of Jupiter and Venus; which Virgil has made one of the cardinal passages in the Aeneid. The later part treated of the events of the first Punic war in the style of a metrical chronicle. An important influence in Roman literature and belief, which had its origin in Sicily, first appeared in this poem — the recognition of the mythical connexion of Aeneas and his Trojans with the foundation of Rome. The few remaining fragments produce the impression of vivid and rapid narrative, to which the flow of the native Saturnian verse, in contradistinction to the weighty and complex structure of the hexameter, was naturally adapted. The impression we get of the man is that, whether or not he actually enjoyed the full rights of Roman citizenship, he was a 1 " If it were permitted that immortals should weep for mortals, the divine Camenae would weep for Naevius the poet; for since he hath passed into the treasure-house of death men have forgotten at Rome how to speak in the Latin tongue." vigorous representative of the bold combative spirit of the ancient Roman commons. He was one of those who made the Latin language into a great organ of literature. The phrases still quoted from him have nothing of an antiquated sound, while they have a genuinely idiomatic ring. As a dramatist he worked more in the spirit of Plautus than of Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius or Terence; but the great Umbrian humorist is separated from his older contemporary, not only by his breadth of comic power, but by his general attitude of moral and political indifference. The power of Naevius was the more genuine Italian gift — the power of satiric criticism — which was employed in making men ridiculous, not, like that of Plautus, in extracting amusement from the humours, follies and eccentricities of life. Although our means of forming a fair estimate of Naevius are scanty, all that we do know of him leads to the conclusion that he was far from being the least among the makers of Roman literature, and that with the loss of his writings there was lost a vein of national feeling and genius which rarely reappears. Fragments (dramas) in L. Miiller, Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabularum Reliquiae (1885), and (Bellum Punicum) in his edition of Ennius (1884); monographs by E. Klussmann (1843); M. J. Berchem (1861); D. de Moor (1877); Mommsen, History of Rome, bk, iii., ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Naevius and Ennius, see V. Crivellari, Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius ex Naevio et Ennio (1889). NAEVUS, a term in surgery signifying that form of tumour which is almost entirely composed of enlarged blood-vessels. There are three principal varieties: (i) the capillary naevus, consisting of enlarged capillaries, frequently of a purplish colour, hence the term " port-wine stain "; (2) the venous naevus, in which the veins are enlarged, of a bluish colour; (3) the arterial naevus, in which there is distinct pulsation, it being composed of enlarged and tortuous arteries. The naevus can be lessened in size by pressure. It generally occurs in the skin or immediately under it; sometimes it lies in the mouth in connexion with the mucous membrane. It is often congenital, hence the term " mother's mark," or it may appear in early childhood. It often grows rapidly, sometimes slowly, and sometimes growth is checked, and it may gradually diminish in size, losing its vascu- larity and becoming fibrous and non-vascular. This natural cure is followed by less deformity than a cure by artificial means. Various methods are used by surgeons when an operation is called for: (i) the tumour may be excised; (2) a ligature tightly tied may be applied to the base of the tumour; (3) inflammation may be set up in the growth by the injection of irritating agents, — in this way its vascularity may be checked and the formation of fibrous tissue encouraged; (4) the blood in the enlarged vessels may be coagulated by the injection of coagulating agents or by electrolysis. NAGA HILLS, a district of British India in the Hills division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It forms part of the mountainous borderland lying between the Brahmaputra valley and Upper Burma. Area, 3070 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 102,402. Towards the N. lie the Patkoi hills, over which British jurisdiction has never been extended; but since 1904 the southern tract, formerly known as the " area of political control," has been incorporated in the district, thus extending its E. boundary from the Dikho to the Tizic river. The whole country forms a wild expanse of forest, mountain and stream. The valleys are covered with dense jungle, dotted with small lakes and marshes. Coal is known to exist in many localities, as well as iron ore and petro- leum. The administrative headquarters of the district are at Kohima (pop. 3093), which is garrisoned by two companies of native infantry and a battalion of military police. The Dimapur- Manipur cart-road crosses the hills, connecting Kohima with the Assam-Bengal railway. Naga means " naked," and is the term applied by the Assamese to the wild tribes of the hills, of which the chief clans are called Angami, Ao, Shota, Sema and Rengma. These tribes have shown extraordinary obstinacy in their resistance to the British ms. Between 1832 and 1849 ten armed expeditions were despatched to chastise them, and from 1866 to 1887 there were eight more, a record which exceeds that of the most turbulent NAGAR— NAGOYA tribes on the North-West Frontier. Since 1892, however, little trouble has been experienced. See Naga Hills District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905). NAGAR, formerly BEDNUR, a village and ruined city of Mysore, India; pop. (1901) 715. About 1640 the seat of government of the rajas of Keladi was transferred to this place. When taken by Hyder Ali in 1763, it is said to have yielded a plunder of twelve millions. In 1783 it surrendered to a British detachment under General Matthews, but being shortly after invested by Tippoo Sultan, the garrison capitulated on condition of safe conduct to the coast. Tippoo violated the stipulation, put General Matthews and the principal officers to death, and imprisoned the remainder of the force. NAGARJUNA, a celebrated Buddhist philosopher and writer. He is constantly quoted in the literature of the later schools of Buddhism, and a very large number of works in Sanskrit is attributed to him. None of these has been critically edited or translated; and there is much uncertainty as to the exact date of his career, and as to his opinions. The most probable date seems to be the early part of the 3rd century A.D. He seems to have been born in the south of India, and to have lived under the patronage of a king of southern Kosala, the modem Chattisgarh. Chinese and Tibetan authorities differ as to the name of this monarch; but it apparently is meant to represent an Indian name Satavahana, which is a dynastic title, not a personal name. Of the works he probably wrote one was a treatise advocating the Madhyamaka views of which he is the reputed founder; another a long and poetical prose work on the stages of the Bodhisattva career; and a third a voluminous commentary on the Mahaprajna-paramita Sutra. Chinese tradition ascribes to him special knowledge of herbs, of astrology, of alchemy and of medicine. Two medical treatises, one on prescriptions in general, the other on the treatment of eye-disease, are said, by Chinese writers, to be by him. Several poems of a didactic character are also ascribed to him. The best known of these poems is The Friendly Epistle addressed to King Udayana. A translation into English of a Tibetan version of this piece has been published by Dr Wenzel. AUTHORITIES. — H. Wenzel, Journal of the Pali Text Society (1866), pp. 1-32; T. Walters, On Yuan Chwdne, ed. by Rhys Davids and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904-1905). Taranatha's Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien, trans. Anton Schiefner (Leipzig, 1869); W. Wassiljew, Der Buddhismus (Leipzig, 1860). (T. W. R. D.) NAGASAKI, a town on the south-west of the island of Kiushiu, Japan, in 32° 44' N., 129° 51' E., with 163,324 (1905) inhabitants, and a foreign settlement containing a population of 400 (ex- cluding Chinese). The first port of entry for ships coming from the south or the west to Japan, it lies at the head of a beautiful inlet some 3 m. long, which forms a splendid anchorage, and is largely used by ships coming to coal and by warships. Marine products, coal and cotton goods are the chief exports, and raw cotton, iron, as well as other metals and materials used for ship- building, constitute the principal imports. The value of imports approaches £2,000,000 annually. That of exports has fluctuated considerably. In 1889 it was £1,005,367, but in 1894 it was only £444,839, and does not generally exceed £450,000. The most important industries of the town are represented by the engine works of Aka-no-ura, three large docks and a patent slip, the property of the Mitsu Bishi Company. Steamers of over 6000 tons have been constructed at these docks, which, as well as the engine works, are situated on the western shore of the inlet. The brisk atmosphere of business that pervades them does not reach the town on the eastern side, which lies under the shadow of forests of tombstones that cover the over-looking hills. Nagasaki is noted as a coaling station. The coal is obtained chiefly from Takashima, an islet 8 m. S.E. of the entrance to the harbour, and in lesser quantities from two other islets, Naka-no-shima and Ha-shima, which lie about i m. farther out. These sources of supply, however, show signs of exhaustion. There are several favourite health resorts in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, notably Unzen, with its sulphur springs. Nagasaki owed its earliest importance to foreign intercourse. Originally called Fukae-no-ura (Fukae Bay), it was included in the fief of Nagasaki Kotaro in the I2th century, and from him it took its name. But it remained an insignificant village until the 1 6th century, when, becoming the headquarters of Japanese Christianity, and subsequently the sole emporium of foreign trade in the hands of the Dutch and the Chinese, it developed considerable prosperity. The opening of the port of Moji for export trade deprived Nagasaki of its monopoly as a coaling station, and the visits of war vessels were reduced when Russia acquired Port Arthur, Great Britain Wei-hai-wei and Germany Kiaochow. On the north side of the channel by which the harbour is entered there stands a cliff called Takaboko, which, under the name of Pappenberg, has long been rendered notorious by a tradition that thousands of Christians were precipitated from it in the I7th century because they refused to trample on the Cross. It has been conclusively proved that the legend is untrue. NAGAUft or NAGORE, a town in India, in Jodhpur state of Rajputana, with a station on the Jodhpur-Bikanir railway. Pop. (1901) 13,377. Nagaur is surrounded by a wall more than 4 m. in circuit. It has given its name to a famous breed of cattle. NAGELSBACH,' CARL FRIEDRICH (1806-1859), German classical scholar, was born at Wohrd near Nuremburg on the 28th of March 1806. After studying at Erlangen and Berlin, he accepted in 1827 an appointment at the Nuremberg gymnasium, and was professor of classics at Erlangen from 1842 till his death on the 2ist of April 1859. Nagelsbach is chiefly known for his excellent Lateinische Stilistik (1846; gth ed. by Ivan Miiller, 1905). Two other important works by him are Die Homerische Theologie (1840; 3rd ed. by G. Autenrieth, 1886) and Die Nachhonterische Theologie (1857). See J. L. Doederlein, Gedachtnissrede fur Herrn K. F. Nagelsbach (1859); article by G. Autenrieth in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic, xxiii. (1886). NAGINA, a town of British India, in Bijnor district of the United Provinces, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, 48 m. N.W. of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 21,412. There is considerable trade in sugar, besides manufactures of guns, glassware (especially bottles for the use of pilgrims carrying the sacred water of the Ganges from Hardwar), ebony wares, hemp-sacking and cotton cloth. NAGODE, a native state of Central India, in the Baghelkhand agency. Area, 501 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 67,092, showing a de- crease of 20% in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, £11,000. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Parihar clan. The town of NAGODE is 17 m. W. of the British station of Sutna. Pop. (1901) 3887. It was formerly a military canton- ment, and has an Anglo-vernacular school and dispensary. The former capital (until 1720) was Unchahra. NAGOYA, the capital of the province of Owari, Japan, on the great trunk railway of Japan, 235 m. from Tokyo and 94 m. from Kioto. Pop. (1903) 284,829. It is the fifth of the chief cities in Japan. It lies near the head of the shallow Isenumi Bay, about 30 m. from the port of Yokkaichi, with which it communicates by light-draught steamers and by rail. The castle of Nagoya, erected in 1610, never suffered in war, but in modern times became a military dep6t; the interior contains much splendid decoration. The central keep of the citadel is a remarkable structure, covering close upon half an acre, but rapidly diminishing in each of its five storeys till the top room is only about 12 yds. square. Gabled roofs and hanging rafters break the almost pyramidal outline; and a pair of gold-plated dolphins 8 ft. high form a striking finial. Both were removed in 1872, and one of them was at the Vienna Exhibition in 1873; but they have been restored to their proper site. The religious buildings of Nagoya include a very fine Buddhist temple, Higashi Hongwanji. Nagoya is well known as one of the great seats of the pottery trade; 13^ m. distant are the potteries of Seto, where the first glazed pottery made in Japan was produced by Kato Shirozaemon, after a visit to China in 1229. From Kato's time Seto continued, during several centuries, to be the chief centre of ceramic production in Japan, the manufacture of porcelain being added to that of pottery in the i9th century. All the 152 NAGPUR— NAGY-VARAD products of the flourishing industry now carried on there and at other places in the province are transported to Nagoya, for sale there or for export. Cotton mills have been established, and an extensive business is carried on in the embroidery of handker- chiefs. Another of its celebrated manufactures is arimatsu- shibori, or textile fabrics (silk or cotton), dyed so as to show spots in relief from which the colour radiates. It is further distin- guished as the birthplace of cloisonne enamelling in Japan, all work of that nature before 1838 — when a new departure was made by Kaji Tsunekichi — having been for purposes of subordinate decoration. Quantities of doisonnS enamels are now produced in the town. NAGPUR, a city, district and division of British India, in the Central Provinces. The city is 1125 ft. above the sea; railway station, 520 m. E. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 127,734. The town is well laid out, with several parks and artificial lakes, and has numerous Hindu temples. The prettily wooded suburb of Sita- baldi contains the chief government buildings, the houses of Europeans, the railway station and the cantonments, with fort and arsenal. In the centre stands Sitabaldi Hill, crowned with the fort. Beyond the station lies the broad sheet of water known as the Jama Talao,and farther east is the city, completely hidden in a mass of foliage. Handsome tanks and gardens, constructed by the Mahratta princes, lie outside the city. The palace, built of black basalt and profusely ornamented with wood carving, was burnt down in 1864, and only the great gate- way remains. The garrison consists of detachments of European and native infantry from Kampti. Nagpur is the headquarters of two corps of rifle volunteers. It is the junction of two im- portant railway systems — the Great Indian Peninsula tojiombay and the Bengal-Nagpur to Calcutta. The large weaving popu- lation maintain their reputation for producing fine fabrics. There are steam cotton mills and machinery for ginning and pressing cotton. The gaol contains an important printing establishment. Education is provided by two aided colleges — the Hislop and the Morris, called after a missionary and a former chief commissioner; four high schools; a law school; an agricultural school, with a class for the scientific training of teachers; a normal school; a zenana mission for the manage- ment of girls' schools; an Anglican and two Catholic schools for Europeans. There are several libraries and reading rooms, and an active Anjuman or Mahommedan society. The DISTRICT or NAGPUR has an area of 384 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 751,844. It lies immediately below the great tableland of the Satpura range. A second line of hills shuts in the district on the south-west, and a third runs from north to south, parting the country into two plains of unequal size. These hills are all offshoots of the Satpuras, and nowhere attain any great ele- vation. Their heights are rocky and sterile, but the valleys and lowlands yield rich crops of corn and garden produce. The western plain slopes down to the river Wardha, is watered by the Jam and Madar, tributaries of the Wardha, and contains the most highly-tilled land in the district, abounding in fruit trees and the richest garden cultivation. The eastern plain (six times the larger), stretching away to the confines of Bhandara and Chanda, consists of a rich undulating country, luxuriant with mango groves and dotted towards the east with countless small tanks. It is watered by the Kanhan, with its tributaries, which flows into the Wainganga beyond the district. The principal crops are millets, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. There are steam factories for ginning and pressing cotton at the military canton- ment of Kampti, which was formerly the chief centre of trades. An important new industry is manganese mining. The district is traversed by the two lines of railway which meet at Nagpur city, and several branches are under construction. The DIVISION OF NAGPUR comprises the five districts of Nagpur, Bhandara, Chanda, Wardha and Balaghat. Area, 23,521 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 3,728,063, showing a decrease of 9% in the decade. See Nagpur District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1908). NA6YKANIZSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Zala, 137 m. S.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1000) 23,255. It possesses distilleries and brick-making factories, and has trade in cereals and cattle. Nagykanizsa once ranked as the second fortress of Hungary, and consequently played an important part during the wars with the Turks, who, having gained possession of it in 1600, held it until, in 1690, after a siege of two years, it was recovered by the Austrian and Hungarian forces. In 1702 the fortifications were destroyed. NAG YKIKINDA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Torontal, 152 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,843, of which about 60% are Servians. Being one of the centres of production of the famous wheat of the Banat, its flour industry is important. Fruit-farming and cattle-rearing are extensively carried on in the neighbourhood. NAGYSZEBEN (Ger. Hermannstadt, Rumanian Sibiu), a town of Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of Szeben, 122 m. S.S.E. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900) 26,077, of whom 16,141 were Saxons (Germans), 7106 Rumanians, and 5747 Magyars. It is beautifully situated at an altitude of 1411 ft. in the fertile valley of the Cibin (Hungarian, Szeben), encircled on all sides by the Transylvanian Alps. It is the seat of a Greek Orthodox (Rumanian) archbishop, and of the super- intendent of the Protestants for the Transylvanian circle. Some parts of Nagyszeben have a medieval appearance, with houses built in the old German style. The most noteworthy of its public buildings is the handsome Protestant Church, begun in the I4th century and finished in 1520, in the Gothic style, containing a beautiful cup-shaped font, cast by Meister Leonhardus in 1438, and a large mural painting of the Crucifixion by Johannes von Rosenau (1445). In the so-called New Church, comprising the west part of the whole building, which is an addition of the 1 6th century, are many beautiful memorials of Saxon notables. Other buildings are: the Roman Catholic parish church, founded in 1726; the church of the Ursuline nuns, built in 1474; the town hall, an imposing building of the 1 5th century, purchased by the municipality in 1545 and containing the archives of the " Saxon nation." The Brukenthal palace, built in 1777-1787 by Baron Samuel von Brukenthal (1721-1803), governor of Transylvania, contains an interesting picture-gallery with good examples of the Dutch school, and a library. The museum contains a natural history section with the complete fauna and flora of Transylvania, and a rich ethnographical section. Nagyszeben has a law academy, a seminary for Greek Orthodox priests, a military academy and several secondary schools. There are manufactures of cloth, linen, leather, caps, boots, soap, candles, ropes, as well as breweries and distilleries. The German name of the town is traceable to Hermann, a citizen of Nuremberg, who about the middle of the 1 2th century established a colony on the spot. In the I3th century it bore the name of Villa Hermanni. Under the last monarchs of the native Magyar dynasty Hermannstadt enjoyed exceptional privileges, and its commerce with the East rose to importance. In the course of the isth and i6th centuries it was several times besieged by the Turks. At the beginning of 1849 it was the scene of several engagements between the Austrians and Hungarians; and later in the year it was several times taken and retaken by the Russians and Hungarians. NAGYSZOMBAT (Ger. Tyrnau), a town of Hungary, in the county of Pozsony, 115 m. N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 12,422. It is situated on the Trnava, and has played an important r61e in the ecclesiastical history of Hungary. It gained prominence after 1543, when the archbishop of Esztergom and primate of Hungary made it his residence after the capture of Esztergom by the Turks. In consequence numerous churches and convents were built, and the town acquired the title of " Little Rome." It possesses a Roman Catholic seminary for priests, and was the seat of a university founded in 1635, which was transferred to Budapest in 1777. In 1820 the archbishop's residence was again removed to Esztergom. It has an active trade in cereals and cattle. NAGY-VARAD (Ger. Grosswardein) , a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Bihar, 153 m. E.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 47,018. It is situated in a plain on both banks of the river Sebeskoros, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic NAHE— NAIL 153 and of a Greek (Old-United) bishopric. Among its principal buildings are the St Ladislaus parish church, built in 1723, which contains the remains of the king St Ladislaus (d. 1095), the Roman Catholic cathedral, built in 1752-1779, the Greek cathedral, the large palace of the Roman Catholic bishop, built in 1778 in the rococo style, the archaeological and historical museum, with an interesting collection of ecclesiastical art, and the county and town hall. Among the educational establishments are a Jaw academy, a seminary for priests, a modern school, a Roman Catholic and a Calvinistic gymnasium, a commercial academy, a training school for teachers and a secondary school for girls. Nagy-Varad is an important railway junction; it possesses extensive manufactures of pottery and large distilleries, and carries on a brisk trade in agricultural produce, cattle, horses, fruit and wine. About 6 m. S. of the town is the village of Hajo, which contains the Piispok Fiirdo or Bishop's Baths, with warm saline and sulphurous waters (92° to 103° F.), used both for drinking and bathing in cases of anaemia and scrofula. Nagy-Varad is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. Its bishopric was founded by St Ladislaus in 1080. The town was destroyed by the Tatars in 1241. Peace was concluded here on the 24th of February 1538 between Ferdinand I. of Austria and his rival John Zapolya, voivode of Transylvania. In 1556 it passed into the possession of Transylvania, but afterwards reverted to Austria. In 1598 the fortress was un- successfully besieged by the Turks, but it fell into their hands in 1660 and was recovered by the Austrians in 1692. The Greek Old-United or Catholic bishopric was founded in 1776. NAHE, a river of Germany, a left-bank tributary of.the Rhine, rises near Selbach in the Oldenburg principality of Birkenfeld. For some distance it forms the boundary between the Bavarian Palatinate and the Prussian Rhine Province, and it falls into the Rhine at Bingen. Its length is 78 m., but it is too shallow and rocky to be navigable. Its picturesque valley, through which runs the railway from Bingerbriick to Neunkirchen, is largely visited by tourists. See Schneegans, Ceschichte des Nahelals (Kreuznach, 1890). NAHUATLAN STOCK, a North and Central American Indian stock. Nahuas or Nahuatlecas was the collective name for the dominant Indian peoples of Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest, and the Nahuatlan stock consisted of the Nahuas (or Aztecs) and a few scattered tribes in Central America. NAHUM (Hebrew for " rich in comfort [is God] "), an Old Testament prophet. The name occurs only in the book of Nahum ; in Nehemiah vii. 7 it is a scribal error for " Rehum." Of the prophet himself all that is known is the statement of the title that he was an Elkoshite. But the locality denoted by the designation is quite uncertain. Later tradition associated Nahum with the region of Nineveh, against which he prophesied, and hence his tomb has been located at a place bearing the name of Alkush near Mosul (anc. Nineveh) and is still shown.1 Accord- ing to Jerome, the prophet was a native of a village in Galilee, which bore the name of Elkesi in the 4th century A.D. (the Galilean town of Capernaum, which probably means " village of Nahum," may also point in the same direction; but cf. John vii. 29, which seems to imply that in the time of Christ no prophet was supposed to have come out of Galilee). E. Nestle has proposed to locate Elkesi " beyond Betogabra " (i.e. Eleuthero- polis, mod. Beit Jibrin) in the tribe of Simeon (cf. Pal. Expl. Fund Quart. Statement, 1879, pp. 136-138). BOOK OF NAHUM. — The original heading of Nahum's prophecy is contained in the second part of the superscription: " [The book of] the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite " (cf. the similar headings in Isaiah, Obadiah and Habakkuk). The first part (" Oracle concerning Nineveh ") is a late editorial insertion, but correctly describes the main contents of the little book. Contents of the Book, (i) Chapters i. and ii. — The prophecy against Nineveh in its present form really begins with chap. ii. i, followed immediately by tf. 3, and readily falls into three parts, viz. (a) ii. i, 3-10; (b) ii. U-J3; and (c) iii. Here (a) describes in language of considerable descriptive power the assault on Nineveh — 1 Jonah's grave has been located similarly in Nineveh itself. the city is mentioned by name in ii. 8 (9 Heb. text) — its capture and sack; (b) contains an oracle of Yahweh directed against the king of Assyria (" Behold, I am against th'ee, saith the Lord of Hosts," v. 13) ; (c) again gives a vivid picture of war and desolation which are to overtake and humiliate Nineveh, as they have already overtaken No-Amon (i.e. Egyptian Thebes, w. 8-10); the defence is pictured as futile and the ruin complete. The absence of dis- tinctly religious motive from these chapters is remarkable; the divine name occurs only in the repeated refrain, " Behold, I am against thee, saith the Lord of Hosts," ii. 13, iii. 5. They express little more than merely human indignation at the oppression of the world-power, and picture with undisguised satisfaction the storm of war which overwhelms the imperial city. (2) Chapter i. forms the exordium to the prophecy of doom against Nineveh in the book as it lies before us. Its tone is exalted, and a fine picture is given of Yahweh appearing in judgment: "The Lord (Yahweh) is a jealous God and avengeth; the Lord avengeth and is full of wrath." The effects of the divine anger on the physical universe are forcibly described (w. 3-6); on the other hand, God cares for those " that put their trust in Him " (». 7), but overwhelms His enemies (m. 8-120); in the following verses (126-15) the joyful news is conveyed to Judah of*the fall of the oppressor: — " Behold upon the mountains the feet of him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace! Keep thy feasts, O Judah, perform thy vows; for the wicked one shall no more pass through thee; he is utterly cut off" (v. 15). Regarding chap. i. and ii. 2( = i. and ii. I, 3, Heb. text) there has been much discussion in recent years. It was long ago noticed that traces of an alphabetic acrostic survive in this section of the book; throughout the whole of chap. i. there is no reference to Nineveh, though in some of the verses (8-l2a, 14) the enemies of Yahweh are addressed, who have usually been identified with the people or city of Nineveh; in m. 126, 13 and (certainly) v. 15 ( = ii. I Heb.) Judah appears to be addressed. The text of i. 1-15, ii. 1-2 has been reconstructed by H. Gunkel and G. Bickell so as to form a complete alphabetic psalm with contents of an eschatological character, and is regarded by them as a later addition to the book. It may be a " generalizing supplement " prefixed by the editor, possibly because the original introduction to the oracle had been mutilated. It is generally held by critical scholars that i. 1-8, 13, 15, and ii. 2 cer- tainly do not proceed from Nahum; i. 9-12 may, however, belong to the prophet. The phenomena are conflicting and a completely satisfactory solution seems to be impossible. Date of Nahum's Oracle. — The date of the composition of Nahum's prophecy must lie between 607-606, when Nineveh was captured and destroyed by the Babylonians and Medes, and the capture of Thebes (No-Amon) which is alluded to in iii. 8— 10. This was effected for the second time and most completely by Assur-bani-pal in 663 or 662 B.C. The tone of the prophecy suggests, on the one hand, that the fall of Nineveh is imminent, while, on the other, the reference to Thebes suggests that the disaster that had befallen it was still freshly remembered. On the whole a date somewhat near 606 is more probable. It is noteworthy that no reference is made to the restoration of the northern kingdom of Israel, or the return of its exiles. The poetry of the book is of a high order. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Commentaries on the Minor Prophets, especially those of 1. Wellhausen, D. W. Nowack and K. Marti (all German) ; G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (2 vols.) ; A. B. Davidson, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah (Camb. Bible, 1896). (G. H. Bo.) NAIK, or NAYAK, from a Sanskrit word meaning a leader, a title used in India in various senses. In the army it denotes a rank corresponding to that of corporal; and Hyder Ali of Mysore was proud of being called Haidar Naik, analogous to " le petit caporal " for Napoleon. It was also the title of the petty dynasties that arose in S. India on the downfall of the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar in the i6th century. NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger.,S wed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. owl;, Sans, nakhds) a word applied both to the horny covering to the upper surface of the extremities of the fingers and toes of man and the Quadrumana (see SKIN and DERMAL SKELETON), and also to a headed pin or spike of metal, commonly of iron. The principal use of nails is in wood- work (joinery and carpentery), but they are also employed in numerous other trades. Size, form of head, nature of point, and special uses all give names to different classes of nails. Thus we have tacks, sprigs and brads for very small nails; rose, clasp and clout, according to the form of head; and flat points or sharp points according to the taper of the spike. According to NAIL VIOLIN— NAIRNE the method of manufacture nails fall into four principal classes: (i) hand-wrought nails; (2) machine-wrought and cut nails; (3) wire or French nails; and (4) cast nails. The nailer handicraft was formerly a great industry in the country around Birmingham. The nails 'are forged from nail- rods heated in a small smith's hearth, hammered on an anvil, the nail length cut off on a chisel and the head formed by dropping the spike into a hole in a " bolster " of steel, from which enough of the spike is left projecting to form the head. In the case of clasp nails the head is formed with two strokes of the hammer, while rose nails require four. The heads of the larger-sized nails are made with an " Oliver " or mechanical hammer, and for ornamental or stamped heads " swages " or dies are employed. The conditions of h'fe and labour among the hand nailers in England were exceedingly unsatisfactory: married women and young children of both sexes working long hours in small filthy sheds attached to their dwellings; their employment was con- trolled by middle-men or nail-masters, who supplied them with the nail-rods and paid for work done, sometimes in money and sometimes in kind on the truck system. Machine- wrought and cut nails have supplanted most corresponding kinds of hand-made nails. Horse nails are still made by hand-labour. These are made from the finest Swedish charcoal iron, hammered out to a sharp point. They must be tough and homogeneous throughout, so that there may be no danger of their breaking over and leaving portions in the hoof. In 1617 Sir D. Bulmer devised a machine for cutting nail-rods, and in 1 790 T. Clifford patented a device for shaping the rods, but the credit of perfecting machinery mainly belongs to American enterprise (the first American patent appears to be that of Ezekiel Reed, dated 1786). The machine, fed with heated (to black heat only) strips of metal, usually mild steel, having a breadth and thickness sufficient for the nail to be made, shears off by its slicer the " nail blank," which, falling down, is firmly clutched at the neck till a heading die strikes against its upper end and forms the head, ths completed nail passing out through an inclined shoot. In large nails the taper of the shank and point is secured by the sectional form to which the strips are rolled; brads, sprigs and small nails, on the other hand, are cut from uniform strips in an angular direction from head to point, the strip being turned over after each blank is cut so that the points and heads are taken from opposite sides alternately, and a uniform taper on two opposite sides of the nail, from head to point, is secured. The machines turn out nails with wonderful rapidity, varying with the size of the nails produced from about 100 to 1000 per minute. Wire or French nails are made from round wire, which is unwound, straightened, cut into lengths and headed by a machine either by intermittent blows or by pressure, but the pointing is accomplished by the pressure of dies. Cast nails, which are cast in sand moulds by the ordinary process, are used principally for horticultural purposes, and the hob-nails or tackets of shoemakers are also cast. See Peter Barlow, Encyclopaedia of Arts, Manufactures and Machinery (1848); Bucknall Smith, Wire, Its Manufacture and Uses (New York, 1891). NAIL VIOLIN (Ger. Nagdgeige, Nagelharmonica), a musical curiosity invented by Johann Wilde, a musician in the imperial orchestra at St Petersburg. The nail violin or harmonica consists of a wooden soundboard about i£ ft. long and i ft. wide bent into a semicircle. In this soundboard are fixed a number of iron or brass nails of different lengths, tuned to give a chromatic scale. Sound is produced by friction with a strong bow, strung with black horsehair. An improved instrument, now in the collection of the Hochschule in Berlin, has two half-moon sound-chests of different sizes, one on the top of the other, forming terraces. In the rounded wall of the upper sound-chest are two rows of iron staples, the upper giving the diatonic scale, and the lower the intermediate chromatic semitones. History records the name of a single virtuoso on this instrument, which has a sweet bell-like tone but limited technical possibilities; he was a Bohemian musician called Senal, who travelled all over Germany with his instrument about 1780-1790. (K. S.) NAINI TAL, a town and district of British India, in the Kumaon division of the United Provinces. The town is 6400 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7609. Naini Tal is a popular sanatorium for the residents in the plains, and the summer head- quarters of the government of the province. It is situated on a lake, surrounded by high mountains, and is subject to landslides; a serious catastrophe of this kind occurred in September 1880. The approach from the plains is by the Rohilkhand and Kumaon railway from Bareilly, which has its terminus at Kathgodam, 22 m. distant by cart road. There are several European schools, besides barracks and convalescent dep6t for European soldiers. The DISTRICT OF NAINI TAL comprises the lower hills of Kumaon and the adjoining Tarai or submontane strip. Area, 2677 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 311,237, showing a decrease of 15-4% in the decade. The district includes the Gagar and other foothills of the Himalayas, which reach an extreme height of nearly 9000 ft. The Bhabar tract at their base consists of boulders from the mountains, among which the hill streams are swallowed up. Forests cover vast tracts of the hill-country and the Bhabar. Beyond this is the Tarai, moist and extremely unhealthy. Here the principal crops are rice and wheat. In the hills a small amount of tea is grown, and a considerable quantity of fruit. The only railway is the line to Kathgodam. See Naini Tal District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904). NAIRN, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of the royal burgh (1901) 5089. It is situated on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of the Nairn and on its left bank, 151 m. N.E. of Inverness by the Highland railway. The town, though of immemorial age, shows no signs of its antiquity, being bright, neat and modern. It attracts many summer visitors by its good sea bathing and excellent golf-course. The industries include salmon fishing, deep-sea fishing, the making of rope and twine and the freestone quarries of the neighbourhood. There is a commodious harbour with breakwater and pier. Nairn belongs to the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and Nairn). Nairn was originally called Invernarne (the mouth of the Nairn) . It was made a royal burgh by Alexander I. (d. 1 1 24) , but this charter having been lost it was confirmed by James VI. in 1589. NAIRNE, CAROLINA, BARONESS (1766-1845), Scottish song writer, was born in the " auld hoose " of Gask, Perthshire, on the 1 6th of August 1766. She was descended from an old family which had settled in Perthshire in the I3th century, and could boast of kinship with the royal race of Scotland. Her father, Laurence Oliphant, was one of the foremost supporters of the Jacobite cause, and she was named Carolina in memory of Prince Charles Edward. In the schoolroom she was known as " pretty Miss Car," and afterwards her striking beauty and pleasing manners earned for her the name of the " Flower of Strathearn." In 1806 she married W. M. Nairne, who became Baron Nairne (see below) in 1824. Following the example set by Burns in the Scots Musical Museum, she undertook to bring out a collection of national airs set to appropriate words. To the collection she contributed a large number of original songs, adopting the signature " B. B." — " Mrs Bogan of Bogan." The music was edited by R. A. Smith, and the collection was published at Edinburgh under the name of the Scottish Minstrel (1821- 1824). After her husband's death in 1830 Lady Nairne took up her residence at Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow, but she spent much time abroad. She died at Gask on the 26th of October 1845. Her songs may be classed under three heads: (i) those illustrative of the characters and manners of the old Scottish gentry, such as " The Laird o' Cockpen," " The Fife Laird," and "John Tod "; (2) Jacobite songs, composed for the most part to gratify her kinsman Robertson, the aged chief of Strowan, among the best known of which are perhaps " Wha '11 be King but Charlie? " " Charlie is my darling," " The Hundred Pipers," " He's owre the Hills," and " Bonnie Charlie's noo awa "; and (3) songs not included under the above heads, ranging over a variety of subjects from " Caller Herrin' " to the " Land o' the NAIRNSHIRE— NAIROBI Leal." For vivacity, genuine pathos and bright wit her songs are surpassed only by those of Burns. Lady Nairne's husband, William Murray Nairne (1757-1830). He was descended from Sir Robert Nairne of Strathord (c. 1620- 1683), a supporter of Charles II., who was created Baron Nairne in 1681. After his death without issue the barony passed to his son-in-law, Lord William Murray (c. 1665-1726), the husband of his only daughter Margaret (1660-1747) and a younger son of John Murray, ist marquess of Athole. William, who took the name of Nairne and became 2nd Baron Nairne, joined the standard of the Jacobites in 1715; he was taken prisoner at the battle of Preston and was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned, but his title was forfeited. His son John (c. 1691- 1770), who but for this forfeiture would have been the 3rd Baron Nairne, was also taken prisoner at Preston, but he was soon set at liberty. In the rising of 1745 he was one of the Jacobite leaders, being present at the battles of Prestonpans, of Falkirk and of Culloden, and consequently he was attainted in 1746; but escaped to France. His son John (d. 1782) was the father of William Murray Nairne, who, being restored to the barony of Nairne in 1824, became the 5th baron. The male line became extinct when his son William, the 6th baron (1808-1837), died unmarried. The next heir was a cousin, Margaret, Baroness Keith of Stonehaven Marischal (1788-1867), wife of Auguste Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, but she did not claim the title. In 1874, however, the right of her daughter, the wife of the 4th marquess of Lansdowne, was allowed by the House of Lords. For Lady Nairne's songs, see Lays from Strathearn, arranged with Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte by Finlay Dun (1846); vol. i. of the Modern Scottish Minstrel (1857); Lye and Songs of the Baroness Nairne, with a Memoir and Poems of Caroline Oliphant the Younger, edited by Charles Rogers (1869, new ed. 1886). See also T. L. Kington-Oliphant, Jacobite Lairds of Cask (1870). NAIRNSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded W. and S. by Inverness-shire, E. by Elginshire and N. by the Moray Firth. It has an area of 103,429 acres or 161-6 sq. m., and a coast line of 9 m. and is the fourth smallest county in Scotland. The seaboard, which is skirted by sandbanks danger- ous to navigation, is lined by low dunes extending into Elginshire. Parallel with the coast there is a deposit of sand and gravel about 90 ft. high stretching inland for 4 or 5 m. This and the undulating plain behind are a continuation westward of the fertile Laigh of Moray. From this region southward the land rises rapidly to the confines of Inverness-shire, where the chief heights occur. Several of these border hills exceed 2000 ft. in altitude, the highest being Cam Glas (2162 ft.). The only rivers of importance are the Findhorn and the Nairn, both rising in Inverness-shire. The Findhorn after it leaves that county takes a mainly north-easterly direction down Strathdearn for 17 m. and enters the sea to the north of Forres in Elginshire after a total course of 70 m. The Nairn, shortly after issuing from Strathnairn, flows towards the N.E. for 12 m. out of its complete course of 38 m. and falls into the Moray Firth at the county town. There are eight lochs, all small, but the loch of Clans is of particular interest because of its examples of crannogs, or lake-dwellings. Nairnshire contains many beautiful woods and much picturesque and romantic scenery. Geology. — The county is divided geologically into two clearly- marked portions. The southern and larger portion is composed of the eastern, Dalradian or younger Highland schists with associated granite masses; this forms all the higher ground. The low-lying northern part of the country bordering Moray Firth is occupied by Old Red Sandstone. The schistose rocks are mainly thin bedded micaceous gneisses, schists and quartzites; between Dallaschyle and Creag an Daimb a more massive higher horizon appears in the centre of a synclinal fold. Porphyritic gneiss is found on the flanks of Carn nan tri-tighearnan. The schists are frequently intersected by dikes of granite, amphibplite, &c. Three masses of granite are found penetrating the schists; the largest lies on the eastern boundary and extends from about Lethen Bar Hill southward by Ardclach and Glenferness to the Bridge of Dulsie. The second mass on the opposite side of the county belongs mainly to Inverness but the granite reaches into Nairn on the slopes of Bein nan Creagan and Ben Buidhe Mhor. A smaller mass near Rait Castle, with large pink crystals of orthoclase, has been employed as a building stone. On the denuded surface of the schists the Old Red Sandstone was deposited and formerly doubtless covered most of the county; outlying patches still remain near Drynachan Lodge and near Highland Boath in Muckle Burn. The Lower Old Red rocks are basal breccias followed by shales with calcareous nodules containing fossil fish. The Upper Old Red, which is found usually nearer the coast, is unconformable on the Lower series; it consists of red shales and clays and obliquely bedded sandstones. Glacial deposits are widely spread; they comprise a Lower Boulder Clay, a series of gravels and sands, followed by an Upper Boulder Clay, above which comes a series of gravel deposits forming ridges on the moor- land between the Nairn and Findhorn rivers. A fine kame, resting on the plain of sand and gravel, lies between Meikle Kildrummie and Loch Flemington, south of the railway. Traces of the old marine terraces at loo ft., 50 ft. and 25 ft. are found near the coast, as well as considerable accumulations of blown sand. Climate and Industries. — The climate is healthy and equable. The temperature for the year averages 47° F., for January 38° F., and for July, 58° F. The mean annual rainfall is 25 in. The soil of the alluvial plain, or Laigh, is light and porous and careful cultiva- tion has rendered it very fertile; and there is some rich land on the Findhorn. Although the most advanced methods of agriculture are in use, but a small proportion of the surface is capable of tillage, only one-fifth of the whole area being under crops. The hills are mostly covered with heath and pasture, suitable for sheep, and cattle are kept on the lower lying ground. The county accords many facilities for sport. A few distilleries, some sandstone and granite quarries and the sea and salmon fisheries of the Nairn practically represent the industries of the shire, apart from agriculture. The Highland Railway from Forres to Inverness crosses the north of the shire. Population and Government. — In 1891 the population numbered 9155 and in 1901 it was 9291, or 57 persons to the sq. m. Besides the county town of Nairn (pop. 5089), there are the parishes of Ardclach (pop. 772), and Auldearn (pop. of parish 1292, of village 313). Nairn and Elgin shires combine to return one member to parliament, arid the county town belongs to the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and Nairn). The shire forms a sheriffdom with Inverness and Elgin and a sheriff -substitute sits alternately at Nairn and Elgin. History. — The country was originally peopled by the Gaelic or northern Picts. Stone circles believed to have been raised by them are found at Moyness, Auldearn, Urchany, Ballinrait, Dalcross and Croy, the valley of the Nairn being especially rich in such relics. To the north of Dulsie Bridge is a monolith called the Princess Stone. A greater number of the mysterious prehistoric stones with cup-markings occur in Nairn than any- where else in Scotland. Mote hills are also common. Whether there was any effective Roman occupation of the land so far north is an open question, but there is little evidence of it in Nairn, beyond the occasional finding of Roman coins. Columba and his successors made valiant efforts to Christianize the Picts, but it was long before their labours began to tell, although the saint's name was preserved late in the igth century in the annual fair at Auldearn called " St Colm's Market," while to his biographer Adamnan — corrupted into Evan or Wean — was dedicated the church at Cawdor, where an old Celtic bell also bears this name. By the dawn of the icth century the Picts had been subdued with the help of the Norsemen, and Nairn, which was one of the districts colonized by the Scandinavians, as part of the ancient province of Moray, soon afterwards became an integral portion of the kingdom of Scotland. Macbeth was one of the kings that Moray gave to Scotland, and his name and memory survive to the present day. Hardmuir, between Brodie and Nairn, is the reputed heath where Macbeth met the witches. Territorially Moray was greatly contracted in the reign of David I. , and thenceforward the history of Nairn merges in the main in that of the bishopric and earldom of Moray (see ELGIN). The thane of Cawdor was constable of the king's castle at Nairn, and when the heritable sheriffdom was established towards the close of the I4th century this office was also filled by the thane of the time. . BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Charl<»s J. G. Rampini, History of Moray and 1899). NAIROBI, capital of the British East Africa protectorate and of the province of Ukamba, 327 m. by rail N.W. of Mombasa and 257 m. S.E. of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Pop. I56 NAIVASHA— NAKSKOV (1907) 4737, including 350 Europeans and 1752 Indians. Nairobi is built on the Athi plains, at the foot of the Kikuyu hills and 5450 ft. above the sea; it commands magnificent views of Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya. It is the headquarters of the Uganda railway, of the military forces in the protectorate, and of the Colonists' Association. It is divided into European, Indian and native quarters. Midway between the European and Indian quarters stands the town hall. The other public buildings include railway works, places of worship (Protestant, Roman Catholic, Mahommedan and Hindu) and schools, an Indian bazaar, a general hospital and waterworks— the water being obtained from springs 13 m. distant. The site of Nairobi was selected as the headquarters of the Uganda railway, and the first buildings were erected in 1899. For some time nearly all its inhabitants were railway officials and Indian coolies engaged in the construction of the line. In 1902 the surrounding highlands were found to be suitable for European settlement, and Nairobi speedily grew in importance; in 1907 the headquarters of the administration were transferred to it from Mombasa. The town is provided with clubs, cricket and athletic grounds and a racecourse. NAIVASHA, the name of a lake, town and province, in British East Africa. The lake, which is roughly circular with a diameter of some 13 m., lies at an altitude of 6135 ft. on the crest of the highest ridge in the eastern rift-valley between the Kikuyu escarpment on the east and the Mau escarpment on the west. It is fed from the north by the rivers Gilgal and Morendat, but has no known outlet. The rivers, which have a minimum dis- charge of too cub. ft. per second, run in deep gullies. The water of the lake is fresh; the shore in many places is lined with papyrus. North and north-west the lake is closed in by the volcanic Buru hills; to the south towers the extinct volcano of Longonot. Hippopotami and otters frequent the lake, and on an island about i m. from the shore are large numbers of antelopes and other game. Naivasha was discovered in 1883 by Gustav Adolf Fischer (1848-1886), one of the early explorers of the Tana and Masai regions, and the first to demonstrate the continuance of the rift-valley through equatorial Africa. Fischer was followed later in the same year by Joseph Thomson, the Scottish explorer. The railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza skirts the eastern side of the lake, and on the railway close to the lake is built the town of Naivasha, 6230 ft. above the sea, 391 m. N.W. by rail of Mombasa and 193 m. S.E. by rail of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Naivasha province contains much land suitable for colonization by white men, and large areas were leased to Europeans by the British authorities in 1903 and subsequent years. The East Africa Syndicate acquired a lease of 500 sq. m. in the valley of the Gilgal and surrounding country north of Lake Naivasha. North-west of the lake and along the Molo river the 3rd Lord Delamere obtained a grant of 155 sq. m. NAJARA, ISRAEL BEN MOSES, Hebrew poet, was born in Damascus and wrote in the latter part of the i6th century (1587- 1599). He was inspired by the mystical school, and his poems are marked by their bold, sensuous images, as well as by a depth of feeling unequalled among the Jewish writers of his age. He often adapted his verses to Arabic and Turkish melodies. To tunes which had been associated with light and even ribald themes, Najara wedded words which reveal an intensity of religious emotion which often takes a form indistinguishable from love poetry. Some pietist contemporaries condemned his work for this reason; but this did not prevent many of his poems from attaining wide popularity and from winning their way into the prayer-book. In fact, Najara could claim the authority of the Biblical " Song of Songs " (mystically inter- preted) for his combination of the language of human love with the expression of the relationship between God and humanity. He published during his lifetime a collection of his poems, Songs of Israel (Zemiroth Israel), in Safed in 1587; an enlarged edition appeared in Venice (1599-1600). Others of his poems were published at various times, and W. Bacher has described some previously unknown poems of Najara (Revue des etudes juives, Nos. 116 seq.). (I. A.) NAJIBABAD, a town of British India, in the Bijnor district of the United Provinces, 31 m. S.E. of Hardwar. Pop. (1901) 19,568. It was founded in the middle of the i8th century by a Rohilla chief, and still contains several architectural monuments of Rohilla magnificence. It has a station on the Oudh & Rohil- khand railway, with a junction for the branch to Kotdwara. There is considerable trade in timber, sugar and grain, and manufactures of metal-ware, shoes, blankets and cotton cloth. NAKHICHEVAN, or NAKHJEVAN, a city of Russian Armenia, in the government of Erivan, 85 m. S.E. of the town of Erivan. It occupies the brow of a spur of the Kara-bagh mountains, 2940 ft. above the sea, and looks out over the valley of the Aras. Pop. (1863) 6251, (1897) 8845. Built and rebuilt again and again, Nakhichevan is full of half-obliterated evidences of former prosperity. The present houses have for the most part been quarried from ancient ruins; of the palace of the princes of Azerbaijan there remains a gateway with a Persian inscription, flanked by two brick towers; and at a little distance stands the so-called Tower of the Khans, a richly decorated twelve-sided structure, 102 ft. in circumference and 75 ft. in height, dating, to judge by the inscription which runs around the cornice, from the I2th century. There are also ruins of a large mosque. Situated on the highroad to Tabriz and Teheran, Nakhichevan has a large transit trade. In the Persian period the city is said to have had 40,000 inhabitants; the population now consists chiefly of Tatars and Armenians, who carry on gardening, make wine and produce silk, salt and millstones. Armenian tradition claims Noah as the founder of Nakhichevan (the Naxuana of Ptolemy), and a mound of earth in the city is still visited by many pilgrims as his grave. Laid waste by the Persians in the 4th century, Nakhichevan sank into comparative insignificance, but by the loth century had recovered its prosperity. In 1064 it was taken by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, and in the I3th century it fell a prey to the Mongols of Jenghiz Khan. It afterwards suffered frequently during the wars between the Persians, Armenians and Turks, and it finally passed into Russian possession by the peace of Turkman-chai in 1828. NAKHICHEVAN-ON-THE-DON, a town of southern Russia, in the Don Cossacks territory, 6 m. by rail N.E. of the town of Rostov and on the right bank of the Don. Pop. (1900) 30,883. It was founded in 1780 by Armenian immigrants. It soon became a wealthy place, and still is the administrative centre of the " Armenian district," a narrow strip along the banks of the Don, with a population of 27,250. The town has tobacco and wadding factories, tallow-melting works, soap-works, brickworks and tanneries. There is a large trade in cereals and timber. NAKHON SRI TAMMARAT (also known as LAKHON and formerly as LIGOEE), a town of southern Siam, in the division of the same name, about 380 m. S. of Bangkok, on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula. It is one of the most ancient cities of Siam, and contains many buildings and ruins of antiquarian interest. The trade consists chiefly of the export of rice. In the bay, a short distance off, ships can lie safely at all seasons. The population (7000) is chiefly Siamese, but there is an ad- mixture of Burmese, the descendants of prisoners of war and of refugees from Tenasserim. The town is the headquarters of a governor under the high commissioner at Singora. It has for long been a centre of the American Presbyterian Mission to Siam. It was once the capital of a feudatory state, the chief of which ruled the greater part of the Malay Peninsula in the name of the kings of Siam and bore the brunt of all the wars with Malacca and other Malay states. It lies, however, north of the limit of Malay expansion, and has never at any time come under Malay rule. With the fall of the Siamese capital of Ayuthia in 1767 it became independent, but returned to its allegiance on the founding of Bangkok. In the I7th century British, Portuguese and Dutch merchants had factories here and carried on an extensive trade. NAKSKOV, a seaport of Denmark, in the amt (county) of Maribo, on a wide bay of the Laalands belt at the west end of the island of Laaland, 31 m. by rail W. of Nykjobing. Pop. (1901) 8310. The church dates from the beginning of the 1 5th century. There is a large sugar factory. A great dike, NAMAQU ALAND— NAME 157 extending S.E. to Rodby (20 m.), protects the coast against inundation, a serious inroad of the sea having occurred in 1872. NAMAQUALAND, a region of south-western Africa, extending along the west coast over 600 m. from Damaraland (22° 43' S.) on the north to 31° S., and stretching inland 80 to 350 m. It is divided by the lower course of the Orange river into two portions — Little Namaqualand to the south and Great Namaqua- land to the north. Little Namaqualand forms part of Cape Colony (opa. chiefly derivatives or compounds of the names of gods (Demetrius, Apollonius, Theodoras, Diodotus, Heraclitus, Diogenes); (2) fiflta, simple or variously compounded names, especially such as were of good omen for a son's future career (Aristides, Pericles, Sophocles, Alexander), although such hopes were frequently belied by the results. Instances of a subsequent change of name are not uncommon; thus, Plato and Theo- phrastus were originally Aristocles and Tyrtamus. To obviate the ambiguity and confusion arising from the use of a single name, various expedients were adopted, the commonest being to add the father's name — Arj^ioff^eyrp AquoaOtvovs, 6 KXttwou. Sometimes the birthplace was added — 'Hp66oros 'AXiKapi'ao'crew, 0oy936); ships cleared, French 173 (tonnage 32,591), foreign 97 (tonnage 27,836). 1907, ships entered, French 186 (tonnage 127,635), foreign 419 (tonnage 361,002); ships cleared, French 126 (tonnage 81,299), foreign 128 (tonnage 45,181). Before the Roman occupation Nantes was the chief town of the Namnetes and consisted of Condovicnum, lying on the hills away from the river, and of Portus Namnelum, on the river. Under the Romans it became a great commercial and admini- strative centre, though its two parts did not coalesce till the 3rd or 4th century. In the middle of the 3rd century Christianity was introduced by St Clair. Clotaire I. got possession of the city in 560, and placed it under the government of St Felix the bishop, who executed enormous works to cause the Loire to flow under the walls of the castle. After being several times subdued by Charlemagne, Brittany revolted under his successors, and Nominoe, proclaimed king in 842, ordered the fortifications of Nantes to be razed because it had sided with Charles the Bald. The Normans held the town from 843 to 936. About this time began the rivalry between Nantes and Rennes, whose counts disputed the sovereignty of Brittany. Pierre de Dreux, declared duke of Brittany by Philip Augustus, made Nantes his capital, NANTES, EDICT OF— NANTICOKE 165 surrounded it with fortifications and defended it valiantly against John of England. During the Breton wars of succession Nantes took part first with Jean de Montfort, but afterwards with Charles of Blois, and did not open its gates to Monfort till his success was assured and his English allies had retired. In 1560 Francis II. granted Nantes a communal constitution. In the course of the isth and i6th centuries the city suffered from several epidemics. Averse to Protestantism, it joined the League along with the duke of Mercceur, governor of Brittany, who helped to raise the country into an independent duchy; and it was not till 1598 that it opened its gates to Henry IV., who here signed on the and of May of that year the famous Edict of Nantes which until its revocation by Louis XIV. in 1685 was the charter of Huguenot liberties in France. It was at Nantes that Henry de Talleyrand, count of Chalais, was punished in 1626 for plotting against Richelieu, that Fouquet was arrested in 1661, and that the Cellamare conspirators were executed under the regent Philip of Orleans. Having warmly embraced the cause of the Revolution in 1789, the city was in 1793 treated with extreme rigour by J. B. Carrier, envoy of the Committee of Public Safety, whose noyad.es or wholesale drownings of prisoners became notorious. Nantes on more than one occasion vigorously resisted the Vendeans. It was here that the duchess of Berry was arrested in 1832 while trying to stir up La Vendee against Louis Philippe. NANTES, EDICT OF, the law promulgated in April 1598 by which the French king, Henry IV., gave religious liberty to his Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The story of the struggle for the edict is part of the history of France, and during the thirty-five years of civil war which preceded its grant, many treaties and other arrangements had been made between the contending religious parties, but none of these had been satis- factory or lasting. The elation of the Protestants at the accession of Henry IV. in 1589 was followed by deep depression, when it was found that not only did he adopt the Roman Catholic faith, but that his efforts to redress their grievances were singularly ineffectual. In 1594 they took determined measures to protect themselves; in 1597, the war with Spain being practically over, long negotiations took place between the king and their repre- sentatives, prominent among whom was the historian J. A. de Thou, and at last the edict was drawn up. It consisted of 95 general articles, which were signed by Henry at Nantes on the i3th of April 1598, and of 56 particular ones, signed on the 2nd of May. There was also some supplementary matter. The main provisions of the edict of Nantes may be briefly summarized under six heads: (i) It gave liberty of conscience to the Protestants throughout the whole of France. (2) It gave to the Protestants the right of holding public worship in those places where they had held it in the year 1576 and in the earlier part of 1577; also in places where this freedom had been granted by the edict of Poitiers (1577) and the treaties of Nerac (1579) and of Felix (1580). The Protestants could also worship in two towns in each bailliage and senechausee. The greater nobles could hold Protestant services in their houses; the lesser nobles could do the same, but only for gatherings of not more than thirty people. Regarding Paris, the Protestants could conduct worship within five leagues of the city; previously this prohibition had extended to a distance of ten leagues. (3) Full civil rights were granted to the Protestants. They could trade freely, inherit property and enter the universities, colleges and schools. All official positions were open to them. (4) To deal with disputes arising out of the edict a chamber was estab- lished in the parlement of Paris (le chambre de I' edit). This was to be composed of ten Roman Catholic, and of six Protestant members. Chambers for the same purpose, but consisting of Protestants and Roman Catholics in equal numbers, were estab- lished in connexion with the provincial parlements. (5) The Protestant pastors were to be paid by the state and to be freed from certain burdens, their position being made practically equal to that of the Roman Catholic clergy. (6) A hundred places of safety were given to the Protestants for eight years, the expenses of garrisoning them being undertaken by the king. In many ways the terms of the edict were very generous to the Protestants, but it must be remembered that the liberty to hold public worship was made the exception and not the rule; this was prohibited except in certain specified cases, and in this respect they were less favourably treated than they were under the arrangement made in 1576. The edict was greatly disliked by the Roman Catholic clergy and their friends, and a few changes were made to conciliate them. The parlement of Paris shared this dislike, and succeeded in reducing the number of Protestant members of the chambre de I'edit from six to one. Then cajoled and threatened by Henry, the parlement registered the edict on the 25th of February 1 599. After similar trouble it was also registered by the provincial parlements, the last to take this step being the parlement of Rouen, which delayed the registration until 1609. The strong political position secured to the French Protestants by the edict of Nantes was very objectionable, not only to the ardent Roman Catholics, but also to more moderate persons, and the payments made to their ministers by the state were viewed with increasing dislike. Thus about 1660 a strong move- ment began for its repeal, and this had great influence with the king. One after another proclamations and declarations were issued which deprived the Protestants of their rights under the edict; their position was rendered intolerable by a series of persecutions which culminated in the dragonnades, and at length on the i8th of October 1685 Louis revoked the edict, thus depriv- ing the Protestants in France of all civil and religious liberty. This gave a new impetus to the emigration of the Huguenots, which had been going on for some years, and England, Holland and Brandenburg received numbers of thrifty and industrious French families. The history of the French Protestants, to which the edict of Nantes belongs, isdealt with in thearticles FRANCE: History,a.nA HUGUENOTS. For further details about the edict see the papers and documents published as Le Trpisieme centenaire de I'edit de Nantes (1898); N. A. F. Puaux, Histoire du Protestantisme franfais (Paris, 1894); H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (London, 1895) ; C. Benoist, La Condition des Protestants sous le regime de I'edit de Nantes et apres sa revocation (Paris, 1900) ; A. Lods, L'Edit de Nantes deyant le parlement de Paris (1899) ; and the Bulletin historique et litteraire of the Socie'te' de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme Frangais. NANTEUIL, ROBERT (1623-1678), French line-engraver, was born about 1623, or, as other authorities state, in 1630, the son of a merchant of Reims. Having received an excellent classical education, he studied engraving under his brother-in- law, Nicholas Regnesson; and, his crayon portraits having attracted attention, he was pensioned by Louis XIV. and appointed designer and engraver of the cabinet to that monarch. It was mainly due to his influence that the king granted the edict of 1660, dated from St Jean de Luz, by which engraving was pronounced free and distinct from the mechanical arts, and its practitioners were declared entitled to the privileges of other artists. He died at Paris in 1678. The plates of Nanteuil, several of them approaching the scale of life, number about three hundred. In his early practice he imitated the technique of his predecessors, working with straight lines, strengthened, but not crossed, in the shadows, in the style of Claude Mellan, and in other prints cross-hatching like Regnesson, or stippling in the manner of Jean Boulanger; but he gradually asserted his full individuality, modelling the faces of his portraits with the utmost precision and completeness, and employing various methods of touch for the draperies and other parts of his plates. Among the finest works of his fully developed period may be named the portraits of Pomponne de Bellievre, Gilles Menage, Jean Loret, the due de la Meilleraye and the duchess de Nemours. A list of his works will be found in Dumesnil's Le Peintre-graveur franqais, vol. iv. NANTICOKE, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, opposite West Nanticoke, and 8 m. S.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1880), 3884; (1890), 10,044; (1900), 12,116, of whom 5055 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 18,877. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the i66 NANTUCKET Central of New Jersey railways, and by an interurban electric line. Nant.icoke is situated in the anthracite coal region, is surrounded by mines, and its industries consist chiefly in mining and shipping coal; it also has various manufactures, and in 1905 the factory product was valued at $358,091. Nanticoke was laid out in 1793, and was incorporated as a borough in 1874. The name is that of an Algonquian tribe of Indians, conspicuous for their dark complexion, who originally lived in Maryland, were conquered by the Iroquois in 1678 and subsequently scattered; the main body removed to lands along the eastern branch of the Susquehanna, where some of them became merged with the Iroquois, and others removed to the Ohio and became merged with the Delaware. NANTUCKET, a county and township (coextensive) of Massa- chusetts, U.S.A. Its principal part is an island of the same name, 28 m. S. of Cape Cod peninsula; it also includes the island of Tuckernuck, which has an area of 1-97 sq. m., and is used for sheep grazing; Muskeget Island, which has excellent hunting, and of which about one-half is a public park; and the Gravel Islands and other islets. Pop. of the county (1905 state census), 2930; (1910) 2962. The island, with a minimum length of 15 m., an average width of 2| m., and an area of about 47 sq. m., has a coast-line of 88 m.; it lies within the lo-fathom line, but is separated from the mainland by Nantucket Sound, which is 25 to 30 m. across and has a maximum depth of 50 ft. The surface of Nantucket Island is open, nearly treeless, with a few hills, the highest being 91 ft. above sea-level. The soil is sandy but affords good pasture in some places, and has been farmed with some success; the flora is rich, and includes some rare species. There are a score of fresh-water ponds, the largest being Hummock (320 acres). Copaum (21 acres) was, at the time of the first settlement, a bay and the commonly used harbour, but the present harbour (6 m. long) is that formed by Coatue Beach, a long narrow tongue of land on the N. side of the island. The northern part of Coatue Beach is known as Coskata Beach, and curves to the N.W.; near its tip is Great Point, where a lighthouse was first built in 1784. There have been many terrible wrecks on the coast, and there are life-saving stations on Muskeget Island, near Maddaket, at Surfside and on Coskata Beach. At the W. end of the island is Tuckernuck Bank, a broad submarine platform, on whose edge are the island of Tuckernuck, on which is a village of the same name, and Muskeget Island. In the S.E. extremity of Nantucket Island is Siasconset (locally 'Sconset), a summer resort of some vogue; it has a Marconi wireless telegraph station, connecting with incoming steamers, the Nantucket shoals lightship and the mainland. On a bluff on the S. is the small village of Surfside. Other hamlets are Maddaket, at the W. end of the island; and Polpis, Quidnet and Wauwinet (at the head of Nantucket harbour) in its E. part. The principal settlement and summer resort is the town of Nantucket (on the S.W. end of the harbour), which is served by steamers from New Bedford, Martha's Vineyard and Wood's Hole, and is connected with Siasconset by a primitive narrow- gauge railway. Here there are large summer hotels, old resi- dences built in the prosperous days of whaling, old lean-to houses, old graveyards and an octagonal towered windmill built in 1746. There are two libraries; one founded in 1836, and now a public library in the Atheneum building; and the other in what is now the School of Industrial and Manual Training (1904), founded in 1827 as a Lancasterian school by Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin (1759-1839), whose ancestors were Nantucket people. The Jethro Coffin House was built in 1686, according to tradition; the Old North Vestry, the first Congregational meeting-house, built in 1711, was moved in 1767, and again in 1834 to its present site on Beacon Hill. The old South Church Tower, a steeple and clock tower, 144 ft. above sea-level, has a fine Portuguese bell, made in 1810. Another old house, built in 1725, was the home of Elihu Coleman, an anti-slavery minister of the Society of Friends, who were very strong here until the close of the first quarter of the igth century. Near the old Friends' School is the building of the Nantucket Historical Society, which has a collection of relics. Nantucket was the home of Benjamin Franklin's mother, Abiah, whose father, Peter Folger, was one of the earliest settlers (1663); of Maria Mitchell, and of Lucretia Mott. Adjoining the Maria Mitchell homestead is a memorial astronomical observatory and library, containing the collections of Miss Mitchell and of her brother, Professor Henry Mitchell (1830-1902), a distinguished hydrographer. The industries of the island are unimportant; there is considerable cod and scallop fishing. Sheep-raising was once an important industry. Nan- tucket was long famous as a whaling port. As early as the beginning of the i8th century its fleets vied with those of eastern Long Island. In 1 7 1 2 a Nantucket whaler, Christopher Hussey, blown out to sea, killed some sperm whales and thus introduced the sperm-oil industry and put an end to the period in which only drift- and shore- or boat-whaling had been carried on — the shore fishery died out about 1760. In 1757 whaling was the only livelihood of the people of Nantucket; and in 1750-1775, although whaling fleets were in repeated danger from French and Spanish privateers, the business, with the allied coopers and other trades, steadily increased. In 1775 the Nantucket fleet numbered 150, and the population was between 5000 and 6000, about 90% being Quakers; but by 1785 the fleet had been shattered, 134 ships being destroyed or captured during the war. Tallow candles as a substitute for whale-oil had been introduced, and the British market was closed by a duty of £18 a ton on oil; a bounty offered by the Massachusetts legis- lature (£5 on white and £3 on yellow or brown spermaceti, and £2 on whale-oil per ton) was of slight assistance. During the war of 1812 the Nantucket fleet was the only one active; it suffered severely during the war, and in the decade 1820-1830 Nantucket lost its primacy to New Bedford, whose fleet in 1840 was twice as large. Nantucket's last whaler sailed in 1869. Subsequently the island has been chiefly important as a summer resort. Title to Nantucket and the neighbouring islands was claimed under grants of the Council for New England both by William Alexander, Lord Stirling, and by Sir Ferdinando Gorges. Lord Stirling's agent sold them in 1641 to Thomas Mayhew (1592- 1682) of Watertown, Mass., and his son Thomas (c. 1616- 1657) for £40, and a little later the elder Mayhew obtained another deed for Martha's Vineyard from Gorges. In 1659 the elder Mayhew sold a joint interest in the greater part of the island of Nantucket for £30 and two beaver hats to nine partners; early in the following year the first ten admitted ten others as equal proprietors, and later, in order to encourage them to settle here, special half-grants were offered to tradesmen. The original twenty proprietors, however, endeavoured to exclude the trades- men from any voice in the government, and this caused strife. Both factions appealed to the governor of New York, that pro- vince having claimed jurisdiction over the islands under the grant to the duke of York in 1664, and, becoming increasingly dissatisfied with that government, sought a union with Massa- chusetts until the islands were annexed to that province by its new charter of 1691. The town of Nantucket was settled in 1661 and was incorporated in 1671. By order of Governor Francis Lovelace it was named Sherburne in 1673, but in 1795 the present name was adopted. Its original site was Maddaket on the W. end of the island; in 1672 it was moved to its present site, then called Wescoe. When counties were first organized in New York, in 1683, Nantucket and the neighbouring islands were erected into Dukes county, but in 1695, after annexation to Massachusetts,' Nantucket Island, having been set apart from Dukes county, constituted Nantucket county, and in 1713 Tuckernuck Island was annexed to it. See the bulletins (1896 sqq.) of the Nantucket Historical Society, established in 1894; F. B. Hough, Papers relating to the Island of Nantucket . . . while under the Colony of New York (Albany, N.Y., 1856); M. S. Dudley, Nantucket Centennial Celebration; Historic Sites and Historic Buildings (Nantucket, 1895) ; Obed Macy, History of Nantucket (Boston, 1835); L. S. Hinchman, Early Settlers of Nantucket (Philadelphia, 1896; 2nd ed., 1901); W. S. Bliss, Quaint Nantucket (Boston, 1896) ; and N. S. Shaler, Geology of Nantucket (Washington, 1889), being U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, No. 53. NANTWICH— NAPHTHALENE 167 NANTWICH, a market town in the Crewe parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 161 m. N.W. of London, on the London & North-Western and Great Western railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7722. It lies on the river Weaver, in the upper part of its flat, open valley. The church of St Mary and St Nicholas is a cruciform building in red sandstone, of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, with a central octagonal tower. The fine old carved stalls are said to have belonged to Vale Royal Abbey, near Winsford in this county. Nantwich re- tains not a few old timbered houses of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, but the town as a whole is modern in appearance. The grammar school was founded in 161 1. The salt industry, still the staple of several towns lower down the vale of the Weaver, was so important here in the time of Henry VIII. that there were three hundred salt-works. Though this industry has lapsed, there are brine baths, much used in cases of rheumatism, gout and general debility, and the former private mansion of Shrewbridge Hall is converted into a hotel with a spa. Nantwich has tanneries, a manufacture of boots and shoes, and clothing factories; and corn-milling and iron-founding are carried on. The town is one of the best hunting centres in the county, being within reach of several meets. From the traces of a Roman road between Nantwich and Middle- wich, and the various Roman remains that have been found in the neighbourhood, it has been conjectured that Nantwich was a salt- town in Roman times, but of this there is no conclusive evidence. The Domesday Survey contains a long account of the laws, customs and values of the salt-works at that period, which were by far the most profitable in Cheshire. The salt-houses were divided between the king, the earl of Chester and certain resident freemen of the neighbourhood. The name of the town appears variously as Wych Manbank, Wie Malban, Nantwich, Lache Mauban, Wysmanban, Wiens Malbanus, Namptewiche. About the year 1070 William Malbedeng or Malbank was created baron of Nantwich, which barony he held of the earl of Chester. In the I3th century the barony fell to three daughters and co-heiresses, and further subdivisions followed. This probably accounts for the lack of privileges belonging to Nant- wich as a corporate town. The only town charter is one of 1567— 1568, in which Queen Elizabeth confirms an ancient privilege of the burgesses that they should not be upon assizes or juries with strangers, relating to matters outside the town. It is stated in the charter that the right to this privilege had been proved by an in- quisition taken in the I4th century, and had then already been held from time immemorial. There was a gild merchant and also a town bailiff, but the latter office was of little real significance and was soon dropped. There is documentary evidence of a castle at Nant- wich in the I3th century. There is a weekly market on Saturday, held by prescription. In 1283 a three-days fair to be held at the feast of St Bartholomew was granted to Robert Burnell, bishop of Bath and Wells (then holder of a share of the barony of Nantwich). This is the " Old Fair " or " Great Fair " now held on the ^th of September. Earl Cholmondeley received a grant of two fairs in 1723. Fairs are now held on the first Thursday in April, June, September and December, and a cheese fair on the first Thursday in each month except January. The salt trade declined altogether in the 1 8th century, with the exception of one salt-works, which was kept open until 1856. There was a shoe trade in the town as early as the I7th century, and gloves were made from the end of the l6th century until about 1863. Weaving and stocking trades also flourished in the l8th century. The one corn-mill of Nantwich was converted into a cotton factory in 1789, but was closed in 1874. See James Hall, A History of Nantwich or Wich Milbank (1883). NAOROJI, DADABHAI (1825- ), Indian politician, was born at Nasik on the 4th of September 1825, the son of a Parsi priest. During a long and active life, he played many parts: professor of mathematics at the Elphinstone college (1854); founder of the Rast Goftar newspaper; partner in a Parsi business firm in London (1855); prime minister of Baroda (1874); member of the Bombay legislative council (1885); M.P. for Central Finsbury (1892-1895), being the first Indian to be elected to the House of Commons; three times president of the Indian National Congress. Many of his numerous writings are collected in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901). NAP, the pile on cloth, the surface of short fibres raised by special processes, differing with the various fabrics, and then smoothed and cut. Formerly the word was applied to the roughness on textiles before shearing. " Nap " in this sense appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Noppe, Dutch nop, Nor. napp; the verbal form is noppen or nappen, to trim, cut short. The word nap also means a short sleep or doze (O. Eng. hnappian). In " napkin," a square of damask or other linen, used for wiping the hands and lips or for protecting the clothes at meals, the second part is a common English suffix, sometimes of diminutive force, and the first is from " nape," * Low Lat. napa or nappa, a corrupt form of mappa, table-cloth. Nape still survives in " napery," a name for household linen in general. NAPHTALI, in the Bible, the name of an Israelite tribe, the " son " of Jacob by Bilhah, Rachel's maid, and the uterine brother of Dan (Gen. xxx. 8). It lay to the south of Dan in the eastern half of upper Galilee (Josh. xix. 32-39), a fertile mountain- ous district (cf. Gen. xlix. 21; Deut. xxxiii. 23), open to the surrounding influences of Phoenicia and Aram. Apart from its share in the war against Sisera (Judg. iv. seq., see DEBORAH), little is known of it. It evidently suffered in the bloody conflicts of Damascus with Israel (i Kings xv. 20), and was depopulated by Tiglath-Pileser IV. (2 Kings xv. 29; Isa. ix. i). Naphtali and Dan are " brothers," perhaps partly on geographical grounds, but Dan also had a seat in the south (south-west of Ephraim), and the name of the " mother " Bilhah is apparently connected with Bilhan, an Edomite and also a Benjamite name (Gen. xxxvi. 27; i Chron. vii. 10). For the view connecting Naphtali (perhaps a geographical rather than a tribal term), or rather its Israelite inhabitants, with the south see the full discussion by H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib. iii. col. 3332 sqq. with references. NAPHTHA, a word originally applied to the more fluid kinds of petroleum, issuing from the ground in the Baku district of Russia and in Persia. It is the va9a of Dioscorides, and the naphtha, or bitumen liquidum candidum of Pliny. By the alchemists the word was used principally to distinguish various highly volatile, mobile and inflammable liquids, such as the ethers, sulphuric ether and acetic ether having been known respectively as naphtha sulphurici and naphtha aceti. The term is now seldom used, either in commerce or in science, without a distinctive prefix, and we thus have the following: — 1. Coal-tar Naphtha. — A volatile commercial product obtained by the distillation of coal-tar (see COAL-TAR). * 2. Shale Naphtha. — Obtained by distillation from the oil pro- duced by the destructive distillation of bituminous shale (see PARAFFIN). 3. Petroleum Naphtha. — A name sometimes given (e.g. in the United States) to a portion of the more volatile hydrocarbons distilled from petroleum (see PETROLEUM). 4. Wood Naphtha. — Methyl alcohol (q.v.). 5. Bone Naphtha. — Known also as bone oil or Dippel's oil. A volatile product of offensive odour obtained in the carbonization of bones for the manufacture of animal charcoal. 6. Caoutchouc Naphtha. — A volatile product obtained by the destructive distillation of rubber. (B. R.) NAPHTHALENE, CioH8, a hydrocarbon discovered in the " carbolic " and " heavy oil " fractions of the coal-tar distillate (see COAL-TAR) in 1819 by A. Garden. It is a product of the action of heat on many organic compounds, being formed when the vapours of ether, camphor, acetic acid, ethylene, acetylene, &c., are passed through a red-hot tube (M. Berthelot, Jahresb., 1851), or when petroleum is led through a red-hot tube packed with charcoal (A. Letny, Ber., 1878, n, p. 1210). It may be synthesized by passing the vapour of phenyl butylene bromide over heated soda lime (B. Aronheim, Ann., 1874, 171, p. 219); and by the action of ortho-xylylene bromide on sodium ethane tetracarbexylic ester, the resulting tetra-hydronaphthalene tetracarboxylic ester being hydrolysed and heated, when it yields hydronaphthalene dicarboxylic acid, the silver, salt of which decomposes on distillation into naphthalene and other products (A. v. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin, junr., Ber., 1884, 17, P- 451):— r r H , Na-C(CO2R)i " CHS-CH-CO,H r „ ^CH2-C(CO»H), lH4 H8 CU, results when chlorine is passed into naphthalene dissolved in chloroform. Numerous hydrides are known; heated with red phosphorus and hydriodic acid the hydrocarbon yields mixtures of hydrides of composition CioHio to CioH20. Sodium in boiling ethyl alcohol gives the a-dihydride, Ci0Hi0 (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1705); and with boiling amyl alcohol the /3-tetrahydride, Ci0Hi2 (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1561). The a-tetrahydro- naphthalene is formed when naphthalene is heated with phos- phonium iodide at i7o°-i9O° (A. v. Baeyer). Structurally naphthalene may be represented as a fusion of two benzene nuclei, the hydrogen atoms being numbered as in the inset formula i, 4, 5, 8 are o-positions, 2, 3, 6, 7 are /3; 1-5 or 4-8 diderivatives are ana, whilst 1-8 or 4-5 are peri (see CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC). a-Nitronaphthalene, CioH7'NO2, is formed by the direct nitration of naphthalene. For its commercial preparation see O. Witt, Die chemische Industrie, 1887, 10, p. 215. It crystallizes in yellow needles, which melt at 61° C., and are readily soluble in alcohol. By the action of nitro-sulphuric acid it is converted into a mixture of 1-5 and 1-8 dinitronaphthalenes (P. Friedlander, Ber., 1809,32, P- 353 ')• When heated with aniline and its salts it yields phenyl- rosmdulin (German patent 67339 (l888))- 0-Nitronaphthalene is prepared by acting with ethyl nitrite on an alcoholic solution of 2-nitro-o-naphthylamine in the presence of sulphuric acid (E. Lell- ' mann and A. Remy, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 237), or with freshly prepared potassium cupronitrite on ^-naphthalene diazonium sulphate (A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2553). It crystallizes in small yellow needles which melt at 78° C. and are volatile in steam. Sulphonic Acids. — Two monosulphonic acids (o and /3) result by acting with sulphuric acid on the hydrocarbon, the a-acid pre- dominating at low temperatures (80° C. and under) and the /3-acid at higher temperatures (i7o°-2OO° C.). They are crystalline, hygro- scopic compounds and are employed for the manufacture of the naphthols. Numerous di- and /ri-sulphonic acids are known. a- Naphthoquinone, CioHeOa, resembles benzoquinone, and is formed by the oxidation of many o-derivatives of naphthalene with^chromic acid. It crystallizes in yellow needles which melt at 125° C. It sublimes readily, is volatile in steam and reduces to the corresponding dihydroxynaphthalene. /3 Naphtho- quinone is formed by oxidizing 2-amino-a-naphthol (from/S-naphthol-orangebyreduction) withferric chlo- ride. It crystallizes in red needles, which melt at 115° C; it has no smell and is non-volatile (cf. phenan- NAPHTHOLS, or HYDROXYNAPHTHALENES, Ci0H7OH, the naphthalene homologues of the phenols. The hydroxyl group is more reactive than in the phenols, the naphthols being con- verted into naphthylamines by the action of ammonia, and forming ethers and esters much more readily. a-Naphthol may be prepared by fusing sodium-a-naphthalene sulphonate with caustic soda; by heating a-naphthylamine sulphate with water to 200° C. (English Patent 14301 (1892)); and by heating phenyl isocrotonic acid (R. Fittig and H. Erdmann, Ann. 1885, 227, p. 242): C6H6CH:CH-CH2-CO2H = CioH7OH+H20. It forms colourless needles which melt at 94° C.; and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and caustic alkalis. It is volatile in steam. With ferric chloride it gives a dark-blue precipitate of a-dinaphthol, HOCioHe-CioHe-OH. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxi- dizes it to phenyl-glyoxyl-ortho-carboxylic acid, HC^C-CeHvCO- CO2H. It is reduced by sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution to " aromatic " tetrahydro-a-naphthol (reduction occurring in the ring which does not contain the hydroxyl group). When heated with hydrazine hydrate at 160° C. it gives a-naphthyl hydrazine, CioH7NH-NH2(L. Hoffmann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2909). Nitric acid converts it into nitro-compounds, which are occasion- ally used for dyeing silk and wool. Marlius yellow, CioH^NC^ONa-HzO, the sodium salt of 2-4 dinitro-o-naphthol (for notation see NAPHTHALENE), is prepared by the action of nitric acid on a-naphthol-2-4-disulphonic acid. It forms orange-yellow plates and dyes wool a golden yellow (from an acid bath). Naphthol yellow S., CioH4(ONa)(NO2)2SO3Na, prepared by the action of nitric acid on a-naphthol-2-4-7-trisulphonic acid, is an orange-yellow powder which dyes wool and silk yellow (from an acid bath). Numerous mono-, di- and trisulphonic acids of o-naphthol are employed in the preparation of azo dyes. The most important is Nevile and Winther's acid, CioHc(OH)(SO3H)(i-4), formed when diazotized naphthionic acid (a-naphthylamine-4-sulphonic acid) is boiled with dilute sulphuric acid (Nevile and Winther, Ber., 1880, 13, p. 1949), or when sodium naphthionate is heated with concen- trated caustic soda solution under pressure at 240 "-260° C. (German patent 46307 (1888)). It melts at 170° C., and is readily soluble in water. With ferric chloride it gives a blue coloration. fi-Naphthol, CioH7OH, prepared by fusing sodium j3-naphtha- lene sulphonate with caustic soda, crystallizes in plates which melt at 122° C. With ferric chloride it gives a green colouration, and after a time a white flocculent precipitate of a dinaphthol. With sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution it gives a mixture of alicyclic and aromatic tetrahydro-jS-naphthols (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 197). When heated with ammonium formate to 150° C. it forms /3-naphthylamine. With nitrosodimethy- laniline hydrochloride it forms Meldola's Blue (dimethylamino- naphthophenoxazonium chloride), CisHis^OCl (R. Meldola, Ber., 1879, 12, p. 2065). The |8-naphthol sulphonic acids find extensive application in the colour industry. The most important members are shown in the table : — the sodium bisulphite compound of 7-8 dioxy-a- naphthoquinone, is a dyestuff used for printing on cotton in the presence of a chromium mordant. The naphthoquinone is prepared by the action of zinc and concentrated sulphuric acid on o-di- nitronaphthalene. A 2-6 naphthoquinone results on oxidizing 2-6 dihydroxynaphthalene with lead peroxide. a-Naphthoic acid, CioHT-COsH, is formed by hydro- . lysis of the nitrile, obtained by distilling potassium- o-naphthalene sulphonate with potassium cyanide (V. Merz, Zeit. f. Chemie, 1868, p. 34), or by heating the sulphonate withsodiumformate (V.Meyer, Ann. ,1870, 156, p. 274). It forms needles which melt at 160° C. ft-Naphthoic acid, obtained by boiling j3-methylnaph- thalene with dilute nitric acid, or by hydrolysis of its nitrile (formed when formyl-/3-naphthalide is heated with zinc dust), crystallizes from alcohol in melt at 184° C. FORMULA. METHOD OF PREPARATION. REMARKS. 2-oxy-8-sulphonic (Baeyer's acid) From /3-naphthol and concen- trated sulphuric acid at 5o°-6o° C. Sodium salt soluble in strong alcohol. 2-oxy-6-sulphonic (Schaffer's acid) From /3-naphthol and concen- trated sulphuric at 100° C. Sodium salt insoluble in alcohol. 2-oxy-7-sulphonic (F-acid) By fusion of naphthalene 2-7- disulphonic acid with caustic soda at 200 "-250° C. Very soluble in water and alcohol. 2-oxy-3'6-disulphonic (R-acid) Both R- and G-acid from /3- naphthol and concentrated sulphuric acid at ioo°- no°C. The sodium salts separ- ated by crystalliza- tion. R-salt insoluble in alcohol ; G-salt soluble. 2-oxy-6-8-disulphonic (G-acid) 2-oxy-3-6-8-trisulphonic From /3-naphthol and fuming sulphuric acid at l4O°-l6o°C. Alkaline solutions show green fluorescence. needles which I Nitrosonaphthols or naphthoquinone-oximes, CioH6(OH)(NO) or I CioH«(:NOH):O. Two are known, namely 4-nitroso-a-naphthol or NAPHTHYLAMINES— NAPIER, SIR C. J. 169 a-naphthoquinone-oxime, formed by the action of nitrous acid on o-naphthol or of hydroxylamine hydrochloride on a-naphthoquinone (H. Goldschmidt and H. Schmidt, Ber., 1884, 17 p. 2064); and 2-nitroso-a-naphthol (/3-naphthoquinone-oxime), formed by the action of hydroxylamine hydrochloride on /3-naphthoquinone, NAPHTHYLAMINES, or AMINONAPHTHALENES, C10HvNH2, the naphthalene homologues of aniline, in contrast to which they may be prepared by heating the naphthols with ammonia- zinc chloride. a-Naphthylamine is prepared by reducing a-nitronaphthalene with iron and hydrochloric acid at about 70° C., the reaction mixture being neutralized with milk of lime, and the naphthy- lamine steam-distilled. It may also be prepared (in the form of its acetyl derivative) by heating a-naphthol with sodium acetate, ammonium chloride and acetic acid (A. Calm, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 6 1 6); by heating a-naphthol with calcium chloride-ammonia to 270° C.; and by heating pyromucic acid, aniline, zinc chloride and lime to 300° C. (F. Canzonieri and V. Oliveri, Gazz., 1886, 16, p. 493). It crystallizes in colourless needles which melt at 50° C. It possesses a disagreeable faecal odour, sublimes readily, and turns brown on exposure to air. Oxidizing agents (ferric chloride, &c.) give a blue precipitate with solutions of its salts. Chromic acid converts it into a-naphthoquinone. Sodium in boil- ing amyl alcohol reduces it to aromatic tetrahydro-a-naphthyl- amine, a substance having the properties of an aromatic amine, for it can be diazotized and does not possess an ammoniacal smell. Since it does not form an addition product with bromine, reduction must have taken place in one of the nuclei only, and on account of the aromatic character of the compound it must be in that nucleus which does not contain the amino group. This tetrahydro compound yields adipic acid, (CI^MCC^HJj, when oxidized by potassium permanganate. The a-naphthylamine sulphonic acids are used for the preparation of azo dyes, these dyes possessing the important property of dyeing unmordanted cotton. The most important is naphthionic acid, i-amino-4- sulphonic acid, produced by heating a-naphthylamine and sulphuric acid to 170-180° C. with about 3% of crystallized oxalic acid. It forms small needles, very sparingly soluble in water. With diazotized benzidine it gives Congo red. 0-Naphl/iylamine is prepared by heating /3-naphthol with zinc chloride-ammonia to 200-210° (V. Merz and W. Weith, Ber., 1880, 13, 1300); or in the form of its acetyl derivative by heating /3-naphthol with ammonium acetate to 270-280° C. It forms odourless, colourless plates which melt at 111-112° C. It gives no colour with ferric chloride. When reduced by sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution it forms alicyclic tetrahydro-/3- naphthylamine, which has most of the properties of the aliphatic amines; it is strongly alkaline in reaction, has an ammoniacal odour and cannot be diazotized. On oxidation it yields ortho-carboxy-hydrocinnamic acid, I^C-CeHcCI^-CHa-COsH. Numerous sulphonic acids derived from /3-naphthylamine are known, the more important of which are the 2-8 or Badische, the 2-5 or Dahl, the 2-7 or 5, and the 2-6 or Bronner acid. Of these, the5-acid and Brenner's acid are of more value technically, since they combine with ortho-tctrazoditolyl to produce fine red dye-stuffs. NAPIER, SIR CHARLES (1786-1860), British admiral, was the second son of Captain the Hon. Charles Napier, R.N., and grandson of Francis, fifth Lord Napier. He was born at Merchiston Hall, near Falkirk, on the 6th of March 1786. He became a midshipman in 1800, and was promoted lieu tenant in 1805. He was appointed to the " Courageux " (74), and was present in her at the action in which the squadron under Sir J. B. Warren took the French " Marengo " (80) and " Belle Poule " (40), on the 1 3th of March 1806 in the West Indies. After re- turning home with Warren he went back to the West Indies in the '' St George " and was appointed acting commander of the "Pultusk" brig. The rank was confirmed on the 3Oth of November 1807. In August 1808 he was moved into the " Re- cruit " (18), and in her fought an action with the " Diligent " (18), in which his thigh was broken. In April 1809 he took part in the capture of the " Hautpoult " (74), and was promoted acting post captain. His rank was confirmed, but he was put on half -pay, when he came home with a convoy. He spent some time at the university of Edinburgh, and then went to Portugal to visit his cousins in Wellington's army. In 1811 he served in the Mediterranean, and in 1813 on the coast of America and in the expedition up the Potomac. The first years of his leisure he spent in Italy and in Paris, but speculated so much in a steamboat enterprise that by 1827 he was quite ruined. In that year he was appointed to the " Galatea " (42), and was at the Azores when they were held by the count de Villa Flor for the queen of Portugal. He so much impressed the constitutional leaders that they begged him to take command of the fleet, which offer he accepted in February 1833. With it he destroyed the Miguelite fleet off Cape St Vincent on July 5, and on the demand of France was struck off the English navy list. Continuing his Portuguese services, he commanded the land forces on the success- ful defence of Lisbon in 1834, when he was made Grand Com- mander of the Tower and Sword, and Count Cape St Vincent in the peerage of Portugal. On his return to England he was re- stored to his former rank in the navy 1836, and received command of the " Powerful " (84), in 1838. When troubles broke out in Syria he was appointed second in command, and distinguished himself by leading the storming column at Sidon on September 26, 1840, and by other services, for which he was made a K.C.B. He went on half-pay in 1841, and was in 1842 elected M.P. for Marylebone in the Liberal interest, but lost his seat in 1846. He was promoted rear-admiral the same year, and com- manded the Channel fleet from 1846 to 1848. On the outbreak of the Russian War he received the command of the fleet destined to act in the Baltic, and hoisted his flag in February 1854. He refused to attack Cronstadt, and a great outcry was raised against him for not obeying the orders of the Admiralty and attempting to storm the key of St Petersburg; but his inaction has been thoroughly justified by posterity. On his return in December 1854 he was not again offered a command. He was elected M.P. for Southwark in February 1855, and maintained his seat, though broken in health, until his death on the 6th of November 1860. Sir Charles Napier was a man of undoubted energy and courage, but of no less eccentricity and vanity. He caused great offence to many of his brother officers by his behaviour to his superior, Admiral Stopford, in the Syrian War, and was embroiled all his life in quarrels with the Admiralty. See Major-General E. Napier's Life and Correspondence of Admiral Sir Charles Napier, K.C.B. (2 vols., London, 1862); Napier's own War in Syria (2 vols., 1842); The Navy: its past and present state, in a series of letters, edited by Sir W. F. P. Napier (1851); and The History of the Baltic Campaign of 1854, from documents and oilier materials furnished by Vice-Admiral Sir C. Napier, K.C.B. (1857). See also The Life and Exploits of Commodore Napier (1841) ; and Life of Vice-Admiral Sir C. Napier (1854). NAPIER, SIR CHARLES JAMES (1782-1853), British soldier and statesman, was born at Whitehall, London, in 1782, being the eldest son of Colonel George Napier (a younger son of the fifth lord Napier), and of his wife, the Lady Sarah Lennox who had charmed King George III. After the custom of those times Charles Napier had been gazetted an ensign in the 33rd regiment in 1794, and in 1797 his father secured for him the appointment of aide-de-camp to Sir James Duff, commanding the Limerick district. Longing for more active service, Napier obtained a commission as lieutenant in the 95th Manningham's Rifles (Rifle Brigade) in 1800. This newly formed corps was designed to supply a body of light troops for the English army fit to cope with the French voltigeurs . and tirailleurs, and was specially trained, at first under the eye of Colonel Coote Manning- ham, and then at Shorncliffe under the immediate supervision of • Sir John Moore. Moore speedily perceived the military qualities of the Napiers, and inspired the three brothers — Charles of the Rifles, George of the 52nd and William of the 43rd — with an enthusiasm which lasted all their lives; but, though happy in his general, Charles Napier quarrelled bitterly with William Stewart, the lieutenant-colonel, and in 1803 left the regiment to accompany General H. E. Fox to Ireland as aide-de-camp. The great influence of his uncle, the duke of iyo NAPIER, SIR C. J. Richmond, and of his cousins, Charles James Fox and the general, procured him in 1804 a captaincy in the staff corps, and in the beginning of 1806 a majority in the Cape regiment. On his way to the Cape, however, he exchanged into the soth regiment, with which he served in the short Danish campaign under Lord Cathcart in 1807. Shortly after his return from Denmark the 5Oth was ordered to Portugal, and in command of it Napier shared all the glories of the famous retreat to Corunna. At the battle of Corunna, one of the last sights of Sir John Moore before he fell mortally wounded was the advance of his own old regiment under the command of Charles Napier and Edward Stanhope, and almost his last words were " Well done, my majors!" The 5oth suffered very severely and both the majors were left "for dead upon the field. Napier's life was saved by a French drummer named Guibert, who brought him safely to the headquarters of Marshal Soult. Soult treated him with the greatest kindness, and he was allowed by Ney to return to England to his " old blind mother " instead of being interned. After about a year he heard that his exchange had been arranged, and, volunteering for the Peninsula, he joined the light division before Ciudad Rodrigo. As a volunteer he served in the actions on the Coa, and again at Busaco, where he was badly wounded in the face. He was ordered to England, but refused to go, and in March 181 1 , though barely recovered, he hurried to the front to take part in the pursuit of Massena. After the battle of Fuentes d'Onor, he received the lieutenant-colonelcy of the io2nd regiment, which had become entirely demoralized at Botany Bay, and when he joined it at Guernsey in 1811 was one of the worst regiments in the service. When he left it in 1813 it was one of the best. He accompanied it in June 1812 from Guernsey to Bermuda, where he wrought a wonderful change in the spirit both of officers and men. By treating his men as friends he won their love and admiration, and became in a peculiar degree the hero of the British soldiers. After seeing further active service against the United States in September 1813 he exchanged back into the 5oth regiment, and in December 1814, believing all chance of active service to be at an end, went on half -pay. He was gazetted one of the first C.B.'s on the extension of the order of the Bath in 1 8 1 4, and was present as a volunteer at the capture of Cambray , but he just missed the great battle of Waterloo. Though an officer of some experience and more than thirty years of age, he now entered the military college at Farnham, and completed his military education. In 1819 he was appointed inspecting field officer at Corfu, in 1820 was sent on a mission to Ali Pasha at lannina, and in 1821 visited Greece, where he became an ardent supporter of the patriot party. From Corfu he was moved in 1822 to Cephalonia, where he remained for eight years as governor and military resident. He was the model of an absolute colonial governor, and showed all the qualities of a benevolent despot. He made good roads and founded great institutions, but every- thing must be done by him, and he showed himself averse to interference, whether from the high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, whom it was his duty to obey, or from the feudal magnates of his own little colony, over whom it was his duty to exercise strict supervision. An interesting episode in his command was his communication with Lord Byron when he touched at Cephalonia on his way to take part in the Greek War of Inde- pendence. Byron sent a letter to the Greek committee in London recommending Napier's appointment as commander-in-chief. But after many negotiations the scheme came to nothing. In 1827 Napier, who had two years before been made a colonel in the army, quarrelled with Sir Frederick Adam, the new high commissioner, and in 1830, when Napier was in England on leave, Adam seized his papers and forbade him to return. Napier -thereupon, refusing promotion to the residency of Zante, retired in disgust, living for some years in the south of England and, after the death of his wife in 1833, in Normandy. Here he wrote his work on the colonies, and also an historical romance on William the Conqueror. Another work, entitled Harold, has disappeared. In 1834 he refused the governorship of Australia, still hoping for military employment. In 1837 he was promoted major-general with his brother George, in 1838 he returned to England and was made a K.C.B.; but he was to wait till 1839 before he received an offer of employment. In that year he was made commanding officer in the northern district, and found his command no sinecure, owing to the turbulent state of the Chartists in the towns of Yorkshire, Lancashire and the Midlands. His behaviour during the tenure of his command is described by William Napier in his life of his brother, and his inability to hold a command which did not carry supreme authority is plainly portrayed. In this particular instance his sympathies were on the popular side, and, though he maintained law and order with the necessary rigour, he resigned as soon as the crisis had passed, and went to India. He was stationed at Poona, and in September 1842, when troubles were expected there, was ordered to Sind. His command in Sind from 1842 till August 1847 is the period of his life during which, according to his brother, he made good his title to fame, but his acts, more especially at first, have been most severely criticized. There can be little doubt that from the moment he landed in the province he determined to conquer the amirs, and to seek the first opportunity of doing so. He was to be accompanied by James Outram (q.v.), who had been resident in Sind during the Afghan War, and who felt a great admiration for him, but who had also a warm affection for the amirs, and believed that he could put off the day of their destruc- tion. On the isth of February 1843, Outram was treacherously assailed at Hyderabad, and on the i7th Napier attacked the Baluch army 30,000 strong with but 2800 men. With these 2800 men, including the 22nd regiment, which would do anything for him, he succeeded in winning the brilliant and decisive victory of Meeanee, one of the most amazing in the history of the British army, in which generals had to fight like privates, and Sir Charles himself engaged in the fray. In the March following, after marching without transport in the most intense heat, he finally destroyed the army of the amirs at the battle of Hyderabad. His success was received with enthusiasm both by the governor-general, Lord Ellenborough, and by the English people, and he was at once made a G.C.B. Whether or not the conquest of Sind at that particular period can be justified, there can be no doubt that Charles Napier was the best adminis- trator who could be found for the province when conquered. Sind, when it carne under English rule, was in a state of utter anarchy, for the Baluchis had formed a military government not unlike that of the Mamelukes in Egypt, which had been extremely tyrannical to the native population. This native population was particularly protected by Sir Charles Napier, who completed the work of the destruction of the Baluch supremacy which he had commenced with the victory of Meeanee. The labour of administration was rendered more difficult by the necessity of repressing the hill tribes, which had been encour- aged to acts of lawlessness by the licence which followed the Afghan War. The later years of his administration were made very stormy by the attacks on the policy of the conquest which had been made in England. He left Sind, after quarrelling with every authority of the presidency of Bombay, and nearly every authority of the whole of India, in August 1847, and received a perfect ovation on his return from all the hero-worshippers of the Napiers, of whom there were many in England. His short stay in England was occupied with incessant struggles with the directors of the East India Company; but the news of the indecisive victory of Chillianwalla created a panic in England, and the East India Company was obliged by public opinion to summon the greatest general of the day to command its armies. Sir Charles started almost at a moment's notice, but on reaching India found that the victory of Gujrat had been won and the Sikh War was over. No taint of envy was in his nature, and he rejoiced that he had not had to supersede Lord Gough in the moment of defeat. His restless and imperious spirit was met by one equally imperious in the governor-general, Lord Dalhousie. The two men were good friends until, in the absence of Dalhousie at sea, Napier took upon himself to alter the regulations regarding the allowances to native troops; the occasion was urgent, as the troops were in a state of mutiny, but on his return Dalhousie NAPIER, JOHN 171 reprimanded the commander-in-chief and reversed his decision. Napier immediately handed in his resignation, and when the duke of Wellington supported Lord Dalhousie and repeated the reprimand he returned to England. He had been credited with foreseeing the Mutiny of 1857, and on the whole with justice. On one occasion he wrote that mutiny was " one of the greatest, if not the greatest, danger threatening India — a danger that may come unexpectedly, and if the first symptoms be not carefully treated, with a power to shake Leadenhall." On the mutiny of the 66th native regiment at Govindgarh he disbanded it, and handed its colours over to a Gurkha regiment, thus showing that he distrusted the high-class Brahman, and recognized the necessity of relying upon a more warlike and more disciplined race. His constitution was undermined by the Indian climate, especially by his fatiguing command in Sind, and on the 2gth of August 1853 he died at Portsmouth. The bronze statue of him by G. G. Adams, which stands in Trafalgar Square, London, was erected by public subscription, by far the greater number of the subscribers being, as the inscription records, private soldiers. The chief authority for Sir Charles Napier's life is his Life and Opinions by his brother (1857); consult also MacColl, Career and Character of C. J. Napier (1857); M'Dougall, General Sir C. J. Napier, Conqueror and Governor of Scinde (1860); W. N. Bruce, Sir Charles Napier (1855) ; and T. R. E. Holmes, Four Famous Soldiers (1889). His own works are Memoir on the Roads of Cepha- lonia (1825) ; The Colonies, treating of their value generally and of the Ionian Islands in particular; Strictures on the Administration of Sir F. Adam (1833); Colonization, particularly in Southern Australia (1835) ; Remarks on Military Law and the Punishment of Flogging (1837); A Dialogue on the Poor Laws (1838?); A Letter on the De- fence of England by Corps of Volunteers and Militia (1852); Lights and Shadows of Military Life (trans, from the French, 1840) ; and A Letter to the Right Honourable Sir J. C. Hobhouse on the Baggage of the Indian Army (1849); Defects, Civil and Military, of the Indian Government (1853); William the Conqueror, a Historical Romance, edited by Sir W. Napier (1858). On Sind, consult primarily Sir W. Napier, The Conques' of Scinde (1845); The Administration of Scinde (1851); Compilation of General Orders issued by Sir C. Napier (1850); and Outram, The Conquest of Scinde, a Commentary (1846). For his command-in-chief , and the controversy about his resignation, consult J. Mawson, Records of the Indian Command of General Sir C. J. Napier (Calcutta, 1851) ; Minutes on the Resignation of the late General Sir C. Napier, by Field-Marshal the Duke of Wellington, &c. (1854); Comments by Sir W. Napier on a Memorandum of the Duke of Wellington (1854); Sir William Napier, General Sir C. Napier and the Directors of the East India Company (1857); Sir W. Lee Warner, Life of Lord Dalhousie (1904). NAPIER, JOHN (1550-1617), Scottish mathematician and inventor of logarithms, was born at Merchiston near Edinburgh in 1550, and was the eighth Napier of Merchiston. The first Napier of Merchiston, " Alexander Napare," acquired the Merchiston estate before the year 1438, from James I. of Scotland. He was provost of Edinburgh in 1437, and was otherwise dis- tinguished. His eldest son Alexander, who succeeded him in 1454, was provost of Edinburgh in 1455, 1457 and 1469; he was knighted and held various important court offices under successive monarchs; at the time of his death in 1473 he was master of the household to James III. His son, John Napier of Rusky , the third of Merchiston, belonged to the royal household in the lifetime of his father. He also was provost of Edinburgh at various times, and it is a remarkable instance of the esteem in which the lairds of Merchiston were held that three of them in immediate lineal succession repeatedly filled so important an office during perhaps the most memorable period in the history of the city. He married a great-granddaughter of Duncan, 8th earl of Levenax (or Lennox), and besides this relationship by marriage the Napiers claimed a lineal male cadency from the ancient family of Levenax. His eldest son, Archibald Napier of Edinbellie, the fourth of Merchiston, belonged to the house- hold of James IV. He fought at Flodden and escaped with his life, but his eldest son Alexander, (fifth of Merchiston) was killed. Alexander's eldest son (Alexander, sixth of Merchiston) was born in 1513, and fell at the battle of Pinkie in 1547. His eldest son was Archibald, seventh of Merchiston, and the father of John Napier, the subject of this article. In 1549 Archibald Napier, at the early age of about fifteen, married Janet, daughter of Francis Bothwell, and in the following year John Napier was born. In the criminal court of Scotland, the earl of Argyll, hereditary justice-general of the kingdom, sometimes presided in person, but more frequently he delegated his functions; and it appears that in 1561 Archibald Napier was appointed one of the justice-deputes. In the register of the court, extending over 1563 and 1564, the justice-deputes named are " Archibald Naper of Merchistoune, Alexander Bannatyne, burgess of Edinburgh, James Stirling of Keir and Mr Thomas Craig." About 1565 he was knighted at the same time as James Stirling, his colleague, whose daughter John Napier subsequently married. In 1582 Sir Archibald was appointed master of the mint in Scotland, with the sole charge of superintending the mines and minerals within the realm, and this office he held till his death in 1608. His first wife died in 1563, and in 1572 he married a cousin, Elizabeth Mowbray, by whom he had three sons, the eldest of whom was named Alexander.1 As already stated, John Napier was born in 1550, the year in which the Reformation in Scotland may be said to have commenced. In 1563, the year in which his mother died, he matriculated at St Salvator's College, St Andrews. He early became a Protestant champion, and the one extant anecdote of his youth occurs in his address " to the Godly and Christian reader " prefixed to his Plaine Discovery. He writes: — " In my tender yeares, and barneage in Sanct-Androis at the Schooles, having, on the one parte, contracted a loving familiaritie with a certaine Gentleman, &c. a Papist; And on the other part, being attentive to the sermons of that worthie man of God, Maister Christopher Goodman, teaching upon the Apocalyps, I was so mooved in admiration, against the blindnes of Papists, that could not most evidently see their seven hilled citie Rome, painted out there so lively by Saint John, as the mother of all spiritual whoredome, that not onely bursted I out in continual reasoning against my said familiar, but also from thenceforth, I determined with my selfe (by the assistance of Gods spirit) to employ my studie and diligence to search out the remanent mysteries of that holy Book: as to this houre (praised be the Lorde) I have bin doing at al such times as conveniently I might have occasion." The names of nearly all Napier's classfellows can be traced as becoming determinantes in 1566 and masters of arts in 1568; but his own name does not appear in the lists. The necessary inference is that his stay at the university was short, and that only the groundwork of his education was laid there. Although there is no direct evidence of the fact, there can be no doubt that he left St Andrews to complete his education abroad, and that he probably studied at the* university of Paris, and visited Italy and Germany. He did not, however, as has been supposed, spend the best years of his manhood abroad, for he was certainly at home in 1571, when the preliminaries of his marriage were arranged at Merchiston; and in 1572 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Stirling of Keir. About the end of the year 1579 his wife died, leaving him one son, Archibald (who in 1627 was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Napier), and one daughter, Jane. A few years afterwards he married again, his second wife being Agnes, daughter of Sir James 1 The descent of the first Napier of Merchiston has been traced to " Johan le Naper del Counte de Dunbretan," who was one of those who swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296 and defended the castle of Stirling against him in 1304; but there is no authority for this genea- logy. The legend with regard to the origin of the name Napier was given by Sir Alexander Napier, eldest son of John Napier, in 1625, in these words: " One of the ancient earls of Lennox in Scotland had issue three sons: the eldest, that succeeded him to the earldom of Lennox; the second, whose name was Donald; and the third, named Gilchrist. The then king of Scotland having wars, did convocate his lieges to battle, amongst whom that was commanded was the earl of Lennox, who, keeping his eldest son at home, sent his two sons to serve for him with the forces that were under his command. . . . After the battle, as the manner is, every one drawing and setting forth his own acts, the king said unto them, ye have all done valiantly, but there is one amongst you who hath Na-Peer (i.e. no equal); and calling Donald into his presence commanded him, in regard to hjs worthy service, and in augmentation of his honour, to change his name from Lennox to Napier, and gave him the lands of Gosford, and lands in Fife, and made him his own servant, which discourse is confirmed by evidences of mine, wherein we are called Lennox alias Napier." 172 NAPIER, JOHN Chisholm of Cromlix, who survived him. By her he had five sons and five daughters. In 1588 he was chosen by the presbytery of Edinburgh one of its commissioners to the General Assembly. On the 1 7th of October 1593 a convention of delegates was held at Edinburgh at which a committee was appointed to follow the king and lay before him in a personal interview certain instructions relating to the punishment of the rebellious Popish earls and the safety of the church. This committee consisted of six members, two barons, two ministers and two burgesses — the two barons selected being John Napier of Merchiston and James Maxwell of Calderwood. The delegates found the king at Jedburgh, and the mission, which was a dangerous one, was successfully accomplished. Shortly afterwards another con- vention was held at Edinburgh, and it was resolved that the delegates sent to Jedburgh should again meet the king at Lin- lithgow and repeat their former instructions. This was done accordingly, the number of members of the committee being, however, doubled. These interviews took place in October 1593, and on the 29th of the following January Napier wrote to the king the letter which forms the dedication of the Plaine Discovery. The full title of this first work of Napier's is given below.1 It was written in English instead of Latin in order that " hereby the simple of this Iland may be instructed "; and the author apologizes for the language and his own mode of expression in the following sentences: — " Whatsoever therfore through hast, is here rudely and in base language set downe, I doubt not to be pardoned thereof by all good men, who, considering the necessitie of this time, will esteem it more meete to make hast to prevent the rising againe of Anti- christian darknes within this Iland, then to prolong the time in painting of language "; and " I graunt indeede, and am sure, that in the style of wordes and utterance of language, we shall greatlie differ, for therein I do judge my selfe inferiour to all men: so that scarcely in these high matters could I with long deliberation finde wordes to expresse my minde." 2 Napier's Plaine Discovery is a serious and laborious work, to which he had devoted years of care and thought. In one sense It may be said to stand to theological literature in Scotland in something of the same position as that occupied by the Canon Mirificus with respect to the scientific literature, for it is the first published original work relating to theological interpretation, and is quite without a predecessor in its own field. Napier lived in the very midst of fiercely contending religious factions; there was but little theological teaching of any kind, and the work related to what were then the leading political and religious questions of the day. 1 A Plaine Discovery of the whole Revelation of Saint lohn: set downe in two treatises: The one searching and proving the true inter- pretation thereof: The other applying the same paraphrastically and historically to the text. Set foorth by John Napier L. of Marchistoun younger. Whereunto are annexed certaine Oracles of Sibylla, agreeing with the Revelation and other places of Scripture. Edinburgh, printed by Robert Walde-grave, prinier to the King's Majestie, 1593. Cum privilegio Regali. 1 A Dutch translation was published at Middelburg in 1600 and a second edition in 1607. The work was translated into French by George Thomson, a naturalized Scotsman residing in La Rochelle, and published by him at that town in 1602, under the title Ouverture de tous les secrets de V Apocalypse. . . . Par Jean Napeir (c. a. d.) Nonpareil, Sieur de Merchiston, reveue par lui-mesme, et mise en Francois par Georges Thomson, Escossois. Subsequent editions were published in 1603, 1605 and 1607. German translations were pub- lished at Gera in 1611 and at Frankfort in 1605 and 1627. The second edition in English appeared at Edinburgh in 1611, and in the preface to it Napier states he intended to have published an edition in Latin soon after the original publication in 1593, but that, as the work had now been made public by the French and Dutch trans- lations, besides the English editions, and as he was " advertised that our papistical adversaries wer to write larglie against the said editions that are alreadie set put," he defers the Latin edition " till haying first seene the adversaries objections, I may insert in the Latin edition an apologie of that which is rightly done, and an amends of whatsoever is amisse." No criticism on the work was published, and there was no Latin edition. A third edition appeared at Edin- burgh in 1645. Corresponding to the first two Edinburgh editions, copies were issued bearing the London imprint and dates 1594 and 1611. After the publication of the Plaine Discovery, Napier seems to have occupied himself with the invention of secret instruments of war, for in the Bacon collection at Lambeth Palace there is a document, dated the 7th of June 1596 and signed by Napier, giving a list of his inventions for the defence of the country against the anticipated invasion by Philip of Spain. The docu- ment is entitled " Secrett Inventionis, proffitabill and necessary in theis dayes for defence of this Iland, and withstanding of strangers, enemies of God's truth and religion," 3 and the in- ventions consist of (i) a mirror for burning the enemies' ships at any distance, (2) a piece of artillery destroying everything round an arc of a circle, and (3) a round metal chariot, so con- structed that its occupants could move it rapidly and easily, while firing out through small holes in it. It has been asserted (by Sir Thomas Urquhart) that the piece of artillery was actually tried upon a plain in Scotland with complete success, a number of sheep and cattle being destroyed. In 1614 appeared the work which in the history of British science can be placed as second only to Newton's Principia. The full title is as follows: Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis descriptio, Ejusque usus, in utraque Trigonometria; ut etiam in omni Logistica Malhematica, Amplissimi, Facillimi, & expeditis- simi explicatio. Authors ac Inventore loanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c., Scoto. Edinburgi, ex officind Andreae Hart Bibliopolae, CID.DC.XIV, This is printed on an ornamental title-page. The work is a small-sized quarto, containing fifty- seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables. The nature of logarithms is explained by reference to the motion of points in a straight line, and the principle upon which they are based is that of the correspondence of a geometrical and an arithmetical series of numbers. The table gives the logarithms of sines for every minute to seven figures. This work contains the first announcement of logarithms to the world, the first table of logarithms and the first use of the name logarithm, which was invented by Napier. In 1617 Napier published his Rabdologia* a duodecimo of one hundred and fifty-four pages; there is prefixed to it as preface a dedicatory epistle to the high chancellor of Scotland. The method which Napier terms " Rabdologia " consists in the use of certain numerating rods for the performance of multiplica- tions and divisions. These rods, which were commonly called " Napier's bones," will be described further on. The second method, which he calls the " Promptuarium Multiplicationis " on account of its being the most expeditious of all for the perform- ance of multiplications, involves the use of a number of lamellae or little plates of metal disposed in a box. In an appendix of forty-one pages he gives his third method, " local arithmetic," which is performed on a chess-board, and depends, in principle, on the expression of numbers in the scale of radix 2. In the Rabdologia he gives the chronological order of his inventions. He speaks of the canon of logarithms as " a me longo tempore elaboratum." The other three methods he devised for the sake of those who would prefer to work with natural numbers; and he mentions that the promptuary was his latest invention. In the preface to the appendix containing the local arithmetic he states that, while devoting all his leisure to the invention of these abbreviations of calculation, and to examining by what methods the toil of calculation might be removed, in addition to the logarithms, rabdologia and promptuary, he had hit upon a certain tabular arithmetic, whereby the more ' troublesome operations of common arithmetic are performed on an abacus or chess-board, and which may be regarded as an amusement 8 A facsimile of this document is given by Mark Napier in his Memoirs of John Napier (1834), p. 248. * Rabdologiae, seu Numerationis per vir galas Libri duo: Cum Appendice de expeditissimo Multiplicationis promptuario. Quibus accessit & Arithmeticae Localis Liber unus. Authore ff Inventore loanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c., Scoto. Edinburgi, Excu- debat Andreas Hart (1617). Foreign editions were published in Italian at Verona in 1623, in Latin at Leiden in 1626 and 1628, and in Dutch at Gouda in 1626. In 1623 Ursinus published Rhabdologia Neperiana at Berlin, and the rods or bones were described in several other works. NAPIER, JOHN rather than a labour, for, by means of it, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and even the extraction of roots are accomplished simply by the motion of counters. He adds that he has appended it to the Rabdologia, in addition to the promp- tuary, because he did not wish to bury it in silence nor to publish so small a matter by itself. With respect to the calculating rods, he mentions in the dedication that they had already found so much favour as to be almost in common use, and even to have been carried to foreign countries; and that he has been advised to publish his little work relating to their mechanism and use, lest they should be put forth in some one else's name. John Napier died on the 4th of April 1617, the same year as that in which the Rabdologia was published. His will, which is extant, was signed on the fourth day before his death. No particulars are known of his last illness, but it seems likely that death came upon him rather suddenly at last. In both the Canonis descriplio and the Rabdologia, however, he makes refer- ence to his ill-health. In the dedication of the former he refers to himself as " mihi jam morbis pene confecto," and in the " Admonitio " at the end he speaks of his " infirma valetudo "; while in the latter he says he has been obliged to leave the calculation of the new canon of logarithms to others "ob in- firmam corporis nostri valetudinem." It has been usually supposed that John Napier was buried in St Giles's church, Edinburgh, which was certainly the burial- place of some of the family, but Mark Napier (Memoirs, p. 426) quotes Professor William Wallace, who, writing in 1832, gives strong reasons for believing that he was buried in the old church of St Cuthbert. Professor Wallace's words are — " My authority for this belief is unquestionable. It is a Treatise on Trigonometry, by a Scotsman, James Hume of Godscroft, Berwickshire, a place still in possession of the family of Hume. The work in question, which is rare, was printed at Paris, and has the date 1636 on the title-page, but the royal privilege which secured it to the author is dated in October 1635, and it may have been written several years earlier. In his treatise (page 116) Hume says, speaking of logarithms, ' L'inuenteur estoit un Seigneur de grande condition, et duquel la posterity est aujourd'huy en possession de grandes dignitez dans le royaume, qui estant sur f'age, et grandement trauailte des gouttes ne pouvait faire autre chose que de s'adonner aux sciences, et principalment aux mathe- matiques et a la logistique, a quoy il se plaisoit mfiniment, et auec estrange peine, a construict ses Tables des Logarymes, imprimees a Edinbourg en 1'an 1614. ... II mourut 1'an 1616, et fut enterre hors la Porte Occidentale d'Edinbourg, dans 1'Eglise de Sainct Cudbert.' " There can be no doubt that Napier's devotion to mathematics was not due to old age and the gout, and that he died in 1617 and not in 1616; still these sentences were written within eighteen years of Napier's death, and their author seems to have had some special sources of information. Additional probability is given to Hume's assertion by the fact that Merchiston is situated in St Cuthbert's parish. It is nowhere else recorded that Napier suffered from the gout. It has been stated that Napier's mathe- matical pursuits led him to dissipate his means. This is not so, for his will (Memoirs, p. 427) shows that besides his large estates he left a considerable amount of personal property. The Canonis Descriptio on its publication in 1614, at once attracted the attention of Edward Wright, whose name is known in connexion with improvements in navigation, and Henry Briggs, then professor of geometry at Gresham College, London. The former translated the work into English, but he died in 1615, and the translation was published by his son Samuel Wright in 1616. Briggs was greatly excited by Napier's invention and visited him at Merchiston in 1615, staying with him a whole month; he repeated his visit in 1616 and, as he states, " would have been glad to make him a third visit if it had pleased God to spare him so long." The logarithms introduced by Napier in the Descriptio are not the same as those now in common use, nor even the same as those now called Napierian or hyperbolic logarithms. The change from the original logarithms to common or decimal logarithms was made by both Napier and Briggs, and the first tables of decimal logarithms were calculated by 173 Briggs, who published a small table, extending to 1000, in 1617, and a large work, Arithmetica Logarilhmica,1 containing logarithms of numbers to 30,000 and from 00,000 to 100,000, in 1624. (See LOGARITHM.) Napier's Descriptio of 1614 contains no explanation of the manner in which he had calculated his table. This account he kept back, as he himself states, in order to see from the reception met with by the Descriptio, whether it would be acceptable. Though written before the Descriptio it had not been prepared for press at the time of his death, but was published by his son Robert in 1619 under the title Mirifici Logarilhmorum Canonis Construction In this treatise (which was written before Napier had invented the name logarithm) logarithms are called " arti- ficial numbers." The different editions of the Descriptio and Construct™, as well as the reception of logarithms on the continent of Europe, and especially by Kepler, whose admiration of the invention almost equalled that of Briggs, belong to the history of logarithms (q.v.). It may, however, be mentioned here that an English translation of the Constructio of 1619 was published by W. R. Macdonald at Edinburgh in 1889, and that there is appended to this edition a complete catalogue of all Napier's writings, and their various editions and translations, English and foreign, all the works being carefully collated, and references being added to the various public libraries in which they are to be found. Napier's priority in the publication of the logarithms is un- questioned and only one other contemporary mathematician seems to have conceived the idea on which they depend. There is no anticipation or hint to be found in previous writers,3 and it is very remarkable that a discovery or invention which was to exert so important and far-reaching an influence on astronomy and every science involving calculation was the work of a single mind. The more one considers the condition of science at the time, and the state of the country in which the discovery took place, the more wonderful does the invention of logarithms appear. When algebra had advanced to the point where exponents were introduced, nothing would be more natural than that their utility as a means of performing multiplications and divisions should be remarked; but it is one of the surprises in the history of science that logarithms were invented as an arithmetical improvement years before their connexion with exponents was known. It is to be noticed also that the invention was not the result of any happy accident. Napier deliberately set himself to abbreviate multiplications and divisions — operations of so fundamental a character that it might well have been thought that they were in rerum natura incapable of abbreviation; and he succeeded in devising, by the help of arithmetic and geometry alone, the one 'The title runs as follows: Arilhmetica Logarithmica, sive Log- arithmorum chUiades triginta. . . . Has numeros primus invenit clarissimus vir lohannes Neperus Baro Merchistonij; eos autem ex eiusdem sententia mutavit, eorumque ortum et usum illustravit Henricus Briggius. . . . !The full title was: Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio; Et eorum ad naturales ipsorum numeros habitudines; und cum Appen- dice, de alid edque praestantiore Logarithmorum specie condendd. Quibus accessere Propositiones ad triangula sphaerica faciliore r.alculo resolvenda: Un& cum Annotalionibus aliquot doctissimi D. Henrici Briggii, in eas & memoratam appendicem. Authore & Inventore loanne Nepero, Barone Merchistomi, &c. Scoto. Edinburgi, Excude- bat Andreas Hart, Anno Domini 1619. There is also preceding this title-page an ornamental title-page, similar to that of the Descriptio of 1614; the words are different, however, and run — Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio . . . Accesserunt Opera Posthuma: Primo, Mirifici ipsius canonis ccnstructio, & Logarithmorum ad naturales ipsorum numeros habitudines. Secundd, Appendix de alid, edque praestantiore Logarithmorum specie construenda. Tertib, Pro- positiones quaedam eminentissimae, ad Triangula sphaerica mirA facilitate resolvenda It would appear that this title-page was to be substituted for the title-page of the Descriptio of 1614 by those who bound the two books together. * The work of Justus Byrgius is described in the article LOGA- RITHM. In that article it is mentioned that a Scotsman in i$94. in a letter to Tycho Brahe held out some hope of logarithms; it is likely that the person referred to is John Craig, son of Thomas Craig, who has been mentioned as one of the colleagues of John Napier's father as justice-depute. 174 NAPIER, JOHN great simplification of which they were susceptible — a simplifica- tion to which nothing essential has since been added. When Napier published the Canonis Descriptio England had taken no part in the advance of science, and there is no British author of the time except Napier whose name can be placed in the same rank as those of Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, or Stevinus. In England, Robert Recorde had indeed published his mathematical treatises, but they were of trifling importance and without influence on the history of science. Scotland had produced nothing, and was perhaps the last country in Europe from which a great mathematical discovery would have been expected. Napier lived, too, not only in a wild country, which was in a lawless and unsettled state during most of his life, but also in a credulous and superstitious age. Like Kepler and all his contemporaries he believed in astrology, and he certainly also had some faith in the power of magic, for there is extant a deed written in his own handwriting containing a con- tract between himself and Robert Logan of Restalrig, a turbulent baron of desperate character, by which Napier undertakes " to serche and sik out, and be al craft and ingyne that he dow, to tempt, trye, and find out " some buried treasure supposed to be hidden in Logan's fortress at Fastcastle, in consideration of receiving one-third part of the treasure found by his aid. Of this singular contract, which is signed, " Robert Logane of Restalrige " and " Jhone Neper, Fear of Merchiston," and is dated July 1 594, a facsimile is given in Mark Napier's Memoirs. As the deed was not destroyed, but is in existence now, it is to be presumed that the terms of it were not fulfilled; but the fact that such a contract should have been drawn up by Napier himself affords a singular illustration of the state of society and the kind of events in the midst of which logarithms had their birth. Considering the time in which he lived, Napier is singu- larly free from superstition: his Plaine Discovery relates to a method of interpretation which belongs to a later age; he shows no trace of the extravagances which occur everywhere in the works of Kepler; and none of his writings contain allusions to astrology or magic. After Napier's death his manuscripts and notes came into the possession of his second son by his second marriage, Robert, who edited the Constructio ; and Colonel Milliken Napier, Robert's lineal male representative, was still in the possession of many of these private papers at the close of the i8th century. On one occasion when Colonel Napier was called from home on foreign service, these papers, together with a portrait of John ;Napier and a Bible with his autograph, were deposited for safety in a room of the house at Milli- ken, in Renfrewshire. During the owner's absence the house was burned to the ground, and all the papers and relics were destroyed. The manuscripts had not been arranged or examined, so that the extent of the loss is unknown. Fortunately, however, Robert Napier had transcribed his father's manuscript De Arte Logistica, and the copy escaped the fate of the originals in the manner explained in the following note, written in the volume containing them by Francis, seventh Lord Napier: "John Napier of Merchiston, inventor of the logarithms, left his manuscripts to his son Robert, who appears to have caused the following pages to have been written out fair from his father's notes, for Mr Briggs, professor of geometry at Oxford. They were given to Francis, the fifth Lord Napier, by William Napier of Culcreugh, Esq., heir-male of the above-named Robert. Finding them in a neglected state, amongst my family papers, I have bound them together, in order to preserve them entire. — NAPIER, 7th March 1801." An account of the contents of these manuscripts was given by Mark Napier in the appendix to his Memoirs of John Napier, and the manuscripts themselves were edited in their entirety by him in 1839 under the title De Arte Logistica Joannis Naperi Mer- chistonii Baronis Libri qui supersunt. Impressum Edinburgi M.DCCC.XXX.IX., as one of the publications of the Bannatyne Club. The treatise occupies one hundred and sixty-two pages, and there is an introduction by Mark Napier of ninety-four pages. The Arithmetic consists of three books, entitled — (l) De Computationibus Quantitatum omnibus Logisticae speciebus communium; (2) De Logistica Arithmetical (3) De Logistica Geometrica. At the end of this book occurs the note-^-" I could find no more of this geo- metrical! pairt amongst all his fragments." The Algebra Joannis Naperi Merchislonii Baronis consists of two books: (i) " De nomi- nata Algebrae parte; (2) De positiva sive cossica Algebrae parte," and concludes with the words, " There is no more of his algebra orderlie sett dpun." The transcripts are entirely in the handwriting of Robert Napier himself, and the two notes that have been quoted prove that they were made from Napier's own papers. The title, which is written on the first leaf, and is also in Robert Napier's writing, runs thus : " The Baron of Merchiston his booke of Arith- meticke and Algebra. For Mr Henrie Briggs, Professor of Geometric at Oxforde." These treatises were probably composed before Napier had invented the logarithms or any of the apparatuses described in the Rabdologia; for they contain no allusion to the principle of loga- rithms, even where we should expect to find such a reference, and the one solitary sentence where the Rabdologia is mentioned ("sive omnium facillime per ossa Rhabdologiae nostrae ") was probably added afterwards. It is worth while to notice that this reference occurs in a chapter " De Multiplications et Partitionis compendiis miscellaneis," which, supposing the treatise to have been written in Napier's younger days, may have been his earliest production on a subject over which his subsequent labours were to exert so enormous an influence. Napier uses abundantes and defectivae for positive and negative, defining them as meaning greater or less than nothing (" Abun- dantes sunt quantitates majores nihilo: defectivae sunt quantitates minores nihilo "). The same definitions occur also in the Canonis Descriptio (1614), p. 5: " Logarithmos sinuum, qui semper majores nihilo sunt, abundantes vocamus, et hoc signo +, aut nullo praeno- tamus. Logarithmos autem minores nihilo defectives vocamus, praenotantes eis hoc signum -." Napier may thus have been the first to use the expression " quantity less than nothing." He uses " radicatum " for_power (for root, power, exponent, his words are radix, radicatum, index). Apart from the interest attaching to these manuscripts as the work of Napier, they possess an independent value as affording evidence of the exact state of his algebraical knowledge at the time when logarithms were invented. There is nothing to show whether the transcripts were sent to Briggs as intended and returned by him, or whether they were not sent to him. Among the Merchiston papers is a thin quarto volume in Robert Napier's writing contain- ing a digest of the principles of alchemy; it is addressed to his son, and on the first leaf there are directions that it is to remain in his charter-chest and be kept secret except from a few. This treatise and the transcripts seem to be the only manuscripts which have escaped destruction. The principle of " Napier's bones " may be easily explained by imagining ten rectangular slips of cardboard, each divided into nine squares. In the top squares of the slips the ten digits are written, and each slip contains in its nine squares the first nine multiples of the digit which appears in the top square. With the exception of the top squares, every square is divided into two parts by a diagonal, the units being written on one side and the tens on the other, so that when a multiple consists of two figures they are separated by the diagonal. Fig. I shows the slips corre- sponding to the numbers 2, o, 8, 5 placed side by side in contact with one another, and next to them is placed another slip containing, in squares without diagonals, the first nine digits. The slips thus placed in contact give the multiples of the number 2085, the digits in each parallelogram being added together; for example, correspond- ing to the number 6 on the right-hand slip, we have o, 8+3, 0+4, 2, I ; whence we find o, i, 5, 2, i as the digits, written backwards, 8 1 FIG. i. of 6X2085. The use of the slips for the purpose of multiplication is now evident; thus to multiply 2085 by 736 we take out in this manner the multiples corresponding to 6, 3, 7, and set down the digits as they are obtained, from right to left, shifting them back one place and adding up the columns as in ordinary multiplication, viz. the figures as written down are — 12510 6255 H595 1534560 Napier's rods or bones consist of ten oblong pieces of wood or other material with square ends. Each of the four faces of each rod contains multiples of one of the nine digits, and is similar to one of the slips just described, the first rod containing the multiples of o, i, 9, 8, the second of o, 2, 9, 7, the third of o, 3, 9, 6, the fourth of o, 4, 9, 5, the fifth of i, 2, 8, 7, the sixth of 1,3, 8, 6, the seventh of 1,4, 8, 5, the eighth of 2, 3, 7, 6, the ninth of 2, 4, 7, 5, and the tenth of 3, 4, 6, 5. Each rod therefore contains on two of its faces multiples of digits which are complementary to those on the other two faces; and the multiples of a digit and of its complement are reversed in position. The arrangement of the numbers on the rods will be evident from fig. 2, which represents the four faces of the fifth rod. The set of ten rods is thus equivalent to four sets of slips as described above, and by their means we may multiply every number less than 11,111, and also any number (consisting of course NAPIER, SIR W. F. P. 175 of not more than ten digits) which can be formed by the top digits of the bars when placed side by side. Of course two sets of rods may be used, and by their means we may multiply every number less than 1 11,111,1 1 1 and so on. It will be noticed that the rods only give the multiples of the number which is to be multiplied, or of the divisor, when they are used for division, and it is evident that they would be of little use to any one who knew the multiplication table as far as 9X9. In multiplications or divisions of any length it is generally convenient to begin by forming a table of the first nine multiples of the multi- plicand or divisor, and Napier's bones at best merely provide such a table, and in an incom- plete form, for the additions of the two figures in the same parallelogram have to be performed each time the rods are used. The Rabdologia attracted more general attention than the loga- rithms, and as has been mentioned, there were several editions on the Continent. Nothing shows more clearly the rude state of arithmetical know- ledge at the beginning of the I7th century than the universal satisfaction with which Napier's invention was welcomed by all classes and re- garded as a real aid to calculation. Napier also describes in the Rabdologia two other larger rods to facilitate the extraction of square and cube roots. In the Rabdologia the rods are called " virgulae," but in the passage quoted above manuscript on arithmetic they are referred to as 8 FIG. 2. from the " bones " (ossa). Besides the logarithms and the calculating rods or bones, Napier's name is attached to certain rules and formulae in spherical trigono- metry. " Napier's rules of circular parts," which include the com- plete system of formulae for the solution of right-angled triangles, may be enunciated as follows. Leaving the right angle out of consideration, the sides including the right angle, the complement of the hypotenuse, and the complements of the other angles are called the circular parts of the triangle. Thus there are five circular parts, a, 6, 90° — A, 90° — c, 90° — B, and these are supposed to be arranged in this order (i.e. the order in which they occur in the triangle) round a circle. Selecting any part and calling it the middle part, the two parts next it are called the adjacent parts and the remaining two parts the opposite parts. The rules then are — sine of the middle part = product of tangents of adjacent parts = product of cosines of opposite parts. These rules were published in the Canonis Descriptio (1614), and Napier has there given a figure, and indicated a method, by means of which they may be proved directly. The rules are curious and interesting, but of very doubtful utility, as the formulae are best remembered by the practical calculator in their unconnected form. " Napier's analogies " are the four formulae — ""- ^ *JC, tanHA-B)=si"^-*X They were first published after his death in the Constructio among the formulae in spherical trigonometry, which were the results of his latest work. Robert Napier says that these results would have been reduced to order and demonstrated consecutively but for his father's death. Only one of the four analogies is actually given by Napier, the other three being added by Briggs in the remarks which are appended to Napier's results. The work left by Napier is, however, rough and unfinished, and it is uncertain whether he knew of the other formulae or not. They are, however, so simply deducible from the results he has given that all the four analogies may be properly called by his name. An analysis of the formulae contained in the Descriptio and Constructio is given by Delambre in vol. i. of his Histoire de V Astronomic moderne. To Napier seems to be due the first use of the decimal point in arithmetic. Decimal tractions were first introduced by Stevinus in his tract La Disme, published in 1585, but he used cumbrous ex- ponents (numbers enclosed in circles) to distinguish the different denominations, primes, seconds, thirds, &c. Thus, for example, he would have written 123-456 as 123(0)4(1)5(2)6(3). In the Rab- dologia Napier gives an " Admonitio pro Decimal! Arithmetica," in which he commends the fractions of Stevinus and gives an example of their use, the division of 861094 by 432. The quotient is written 1993,273 in the work, and I993,2'7'3" in the text. This single instance of the use of the decimal point in the midst of an arith- metical process, if it stood alone, would not suffice to establish a claim for its introduction, as the real introducer of the decimal point is the person who first saw that a point or line as separator was all that was required to distinguish between the integers and fractions, and used it as a permanent notation and not merely in the course of performing an arithmetical operation. The decimal point is, however, used systematically in the Constructio (1619), there being perhaps two hundred decimal points altogether in the book. The c'g^ynal point is defined on p. 6 of the Constructio in the words: \- n>. /eris periodo sic in se distinctis, quicquid post periodum notatur fn»ctio est, cujus denominator est unitas cum tot cyphris post se, quot sunt figurae post periodum. Ut 10000000-04 valet idem, quod ioooooooTJB. Item 25-803, idem quod 251%S5 Item 9999998-0005021, idem valet quod 9999998 nHHHiira. & sic de caetens. ' On p. C 10-502 is multiplied by 3-216, and the resr.lt found to be 33-774432; and on pp. 23 and 24 occur decimals not attached to integers, viz. -4999712 and -0004950. These examples show that Napier was in possession of all the conventions and attri- butes that enable the decimal point to complete so symmetrically our system of notation, viz. (l) he saw that a point or separatrix was quite enough to separate integers from decimals, and that no signs to indicate primes, seconds, &c., were required; (2) he used ciphers after the decimal point and preceding the first significant figure; and (3) he had no objection to a decimal standing by itself without any integer. Napier thus had complete command over decimal fractions and the use of the decimal point. Briggs also used deci- mals, but in a form not quite so convenient as Napier. Thus he prints 63-0957379 as 630957379, viz. he prints a bar under the decimals; this notation first appears without any explanation in his " Lucubrationes " appended to the Constructio. Briggs seems to have used the notation all his life, but in writing it, as appears from manuscripts of his, he added also a small vertical line just high enough to fix distinctly which two figures it was intended to separate : thus he might have written 63_oojj7379. The vertical line was printed by Oughtred and some of Briggs's successors. It was a long time before decimal arithmetic came into general use, and all through the I7th century exponential marks were in common use. There seems but little doubt that Napier was the first to make use of a decimal separator, and it is curious that the separator which he used, the point, should be that which has been ultimately adopted, and after a long period of partial disuse. The hereditary office of king's poulterer (Pultrie Regis) was for many generations in the family of Merchiston, and descended to John Napier. The office, Mark Napier states, is repeatedly men- tioned in the family charters as appertaining to the " pultre landis " near the village of Dene in the shire of Linlithgow. The duties were to be performed by the possessor or his deputy; and the king was entitled to demand the yearly homage of a present of poultry from the feudal holder. The pultrelands and the office were sold by John Napier in 1610 for 1700 marks. With the exception of the pultrelands all the estates he inherited descended to his posterity. With regard to the spelling of the name, Mark Napier states that among the family papers there exist a great many documents signed by John Napier. His usual signature was " Jhone Neper," but in a letter written in 1608, and in all deeds signed after that date, he wrote " Jhone Nepair." His letter to the king prefixed to the Plaine Discovery is signed " John Napeir." His own children, who sign deeds along with him, use every mode except Napier, the form now adopted by the family, and which is comparatively modern. In Latin he always wrote his name " Neperus." The form " Neper " is the oldest, as John, third Napier of Merchiston, so spelt it in the 1 5th century. Napier frequently signed his name " Jhone Neper, Fear of Mer- chistc" " He was " Fear of Merchiston " because, more majorum, he had been invested with the fee of his paternal barony during the lifetime of his father, who retained the liferent. He has been some- times erroneously called " Peer of Merchiston," and in the 1645 edition of the Plaine Discovery he is so styled (see Mark Napier's Memoirs, pp. 9 and 173, and Libri qui supersunt, p. xciv.). The bibliographv of Napier's work attached to W. R. Macdonald's translation of the Canonis Constructio (1889) is complete and valuable. Napier's three mathematical works are reprinted by N. L. W. A. Gravelaar in Verhandelingen der Kon. Akad. van Wet te Amsterdam, i. sectie, deel 6 (1899). (J. W. L. G.) NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785-1860), British soldier and military historian, third son of Colonel George Napier (1751-1804), and brother of Sir Charles James Napier (see above), was born at Celbridge, near Dublin, on the I7th of December 1785. He became an ensign in the Royal Irish Artillery in 1800, but at once exchanged into the 62nd, and was put on half-pay in 1802. He was afterwards made a cornet in the Blues by the influence of his uncle the duke of Richmond, and for the first time did actual military duty in this regiment, but he soon fell in with Sir John Moore's suggestion that he should exchange into the 52nd, which was about to be trained in the famous camp of Shorncliffe. Through Sir John Moore he soon obtained a company in the 43rd, joined that regiment at Shorn- cliffe and became a great favourite with Moore. He served in Denmark, and was present at the engagement of Kioge, and, his regiment being shortly afterwards sent to Spain, he bore himself nobly through the retreat to Corunna, the hardships of which permanently impaired his health. In 1809 he became NAPIER, SIR W. F. P. aide-de-camp to the duke of Richmond, lord lie^ufjant of Ireland, but joined the 43rd when that regiment was ordered again to Spain. With the light brigade (the 43rd, 52nd, and 95th), under the command of General Crauf urd, he marched to Talavera in the famous forced march which he has described in his History, and had a violent attack of pleurisy on the way. He, however, refused to leave Spain, was wounded on the Coa, and shot near the spine at Cazal Nova. His conduct was so conspicuous during the pursuit of Massena after he left the lines of Torres Vedras that he as well as his brother George was recommended for a brevet majority. He became brigade major, was present at Fuentes d'Onor, but had so bad an attack of ague that he was obliged to return to England. In England he married Caroline Amelia Fox, daughter of General Henry Fox and niece of the statesman Fox. Three weeks after his marriage he again started for Spain, and was present at the storming of Badajoz, where his great friend Colonel M'Leod was killed. In the absence of the new lieutenant-colonel he took command of the 43rd regiment (he was now a substantive major) and commanded it at the battle of Salamanca. After a short stay at home he again joined his regiment at the Pyrenees, and did his greatest military service at the battle of the Nivelle, where, with instinctive military insight, he secured the most strongly fortified part of Soult's position, practically without orders. He served with his regiment at the battles of the Nive, where he received two wounds, Orthes, and Toulouse. For his services he was made brevet lieutenant-colonel, and one of the first C.B.'s. Like his brother Charles he then entered the military college at Farnham. He commanded his regiment in the invasion of France after Waterloo, and remained in France with the army of occupation until 1819, when he retired on half-pay. As it was impossible for him to live on a major's half-pay with a wife and family, he determined to become an artist, and took a house in Sloane Street, where he studied with George Jones, the academician. The years he had spent in France he had occupied in improving his general education, for, incredible as it seems, the author of the History of the War in the Peninsula could not spell or write respectable English till that time. But his career was to be great in literature, not in art. The tendency appeared in an able review of Jomini's works (Edinburgh Rev.) in 1821, and in 1823 Mr Bickersteth (afterwards Lord Langdale) suggested to him the expediency of writing a history of the Peninsular War. For some time he did not take kindly to the suggestion, but at last determined to become an author in order to defend the memory of Sir John Moore, and to prevent the glory of his old chief being overshadowed by that of Wellington. The duke of Wellington himself gave him much assistance, and handed over to him the whole of Joseph Bonaparte's correspondence which had been taken at the battle of Vittoria; this was all in cipher, but Mrs Napier, with great patience, discovered the keys. Marshal Soult also took an active interest hi the work and arranged for the French translation of Mathieu Dumas. In 1828 the first volume of the History appeared. The publisher, John Murray, indeed, was disappointed in the sale of the first volume and Napier published the remainder himself. But it was at once seen that the great deeds of the Peninsular War were about to be fitly commemorated. The excitement which followed the appearance of each volume is proved by the innumerable pamphlets issued by those who believed themselves to be attacked, and by personal altercations with many distinguished officers. But the success of the book was proved still more by the absence of competition than by these bitter controversies. The histories of Southey and Lord Londonderry fell still-born, and Sir George Murray, Wellington's quartermaster-general, who had determined to pro- duce the history, gave up the attempt in despair. This success was due to a combination of qualities which have justly secured for Napier the title of being the greatest military historian England has produced. When in 1840 the last volume of the History was published, his fame not only in England but in France and Germany was safely established. His life during these years had been chiefly absorbed in his History, but he had warmly sympathized with the movement for political reform which was agitating England. The Radicals of Bath and many other cities and towns pressed him to enter parliament, and Napier was actually invited to become the military chief of a national guard to obtain reforms by force of arms. He refused the dangerous honour on the ground that he was in bad health and had a family of eight children. In 1830 he had been promoted colonel, and in 1842 he was made a major- general and given the lieutenant-governorship of Guernsey. Here he found plenty of occupation in controlling the relations between the soldiers and the inhabitants, and also in working out proposals for a complete scheme of reform in the government of the island. While he was at Guernsey his brother Charles had conquered Sind, and the attacks made on the policy of that conquest brought William Napier again into the field of literature. In 1845 he published his History of the Conquest of Scinde, and in 1851 the corresponding History of the Administration of Scinde — books which in style and vigour rivalled the great History, but which, being written for controversial purposes, were not likely to maintain enduring popularity. In 1847 he resigned his governorship, and in 1848 was made a K.C.B., and settled at Scinde House, Clapham Park. In 1851 he was promoted lieu- tenant-general. His time was fully occupied in defending his brother, in revising the numerous editions of his History which were being called for, and in writing letters to The Times on every conceivable subject, whether military or literary. His energy is the more astonishing when it is remembered that he never recovered from the effects of the wound he had received at Cazal Nova, and that he often had to lie on his back for months together. His domestic life was shadowed by the incurable affliction of his only son, and when his brother Charles died in 1853 the world seemed to be darkening round him. He devoted himself to writing the life of that brother, which appeared in 1857, and which is in many respects his most characteristic book. In the end of 1853 his younger brother, Captain Henry Napier, R.N., died, and in 1855 his brother Sir George (see below). Inspired by his work, he lived on till the year 1860, when, broken by trouble, fatigue and ill-health, he died (February 12) at Clapham. Four months earlier he had been promoted to the full rank of general. As a military historian Sir William Napier is incomparably superior to any other English writer, and his true compeers are Thucydides, Caesar and Davila. All four had been soldiers in the wars they describe; all four possessed a peculiar insight into the mainsprings of action both in war and peace; and each possessed a peculiar and inimitable style. Napier always wrote as if he was burrting with an inextinguishable desire to express what he was feeling, which gives his style a peculiar spontaneity, and yet he rewrote the first volume of his History no less than six times. His descriptions of sieges and of battles are admirable by themselves, and his analyses of the peculiarly intricate Spanish intrigues are even more remarkable, while the descriptions and analyses are both lit up with flashes of political wisdom and military insight. It is to be noted that he displays the spirit of the partisan, even when most impartial, and defends his opinions, even when most undoubtedly true, as if he were arguing some controverted question. If his style was modelled on anything, it was on Caesar's comment- aries, and a thorough knowledge of the writings of the Roman general will often explain allusions in Napier. The portraits of Sir John Moore and Colonel M'Leod, and the last paragraphs de- scriptive of the storming of Badajoz, may be taken as examples of his great natural eloquence. His brother, SIR GEORGE THOMAS NAPIER (i 784-1855), entered the army in 1800, and served with distinction under Moore and Wellington in the Peninsula — and lost his right arm at the storming of Badajoz. He became major-general in 1837, K.C.B. in 1838 and lieutenant-general in 1846. He was governor and commander-in-chief at the Cape from 1839 to 1843, during which time the abolition of slavery and the expulsion of the Boers from Natal were the chief events. He was offered, but declined, the chief command in India after Chillianwalla, and also that of the Sardinian army in 1849. He became full general in 1854. He died at Geneva on the i6th of September 1855. His auto- biography, Passages in the Early Military Life of General Sir G. T. Napier, was published by his surviving son, General W. C. E. Napier (the author of an important work on outpost duty), in 1885. NAPIER AND ETTRICK— NAPIER OF MAGDALA 177 The youngest brother, HENRY EDWARD NAPIER (1789-1853), served in the navy during the Napoleonic wars, retired as a captain, and wrote a learned Florentine History from the earliest authentic Records to the Accession of Ferdinand III. of Tuscany (1846-1847). For Sir William Napier's life, see his Life and Letters, edited by the Right Honourable H. A. Bruce (Lord Aberdare) (2 vols., 1862). NAPIER AND ETTRICK, FRANCIS NAPIER, BARON (1819- 1898), British diplomatist, was descended from the ancient Scottish family of Napier of Merchistoun, his ancestor Sir Alexander Napier (d. c. 1473) being the elder son of Alexander Napier (d. c. 1454), provost of Edinburgh, who obtained lands at Merchistoun early in the isth century. Sir Alexander was comptroller of the household of the king of Scotland, and was often sent to England and elsewhere on public business. Of his descendants one Napier of Merchistoun was killed at Sauchie- burn, another fell at Flodden and a third at Pinkie. The seventh Napier of Merchistoun was Sir Archibald Napier (1534-1608), master of the Scottish mint, and the eighth was John Napier (q.v.) the inventor of logarithms. John's eldest son, Sir Archibald Napier (c. 1576-1645), was treasurer-depute of Scotland from 1622 to 1631, and was created Lord Napier of Merchistoun in 1627. He married Margaret Graham, sister of the great marquess of Montrose, whose cause he espoused, and he wrote some Memoirs which were published in Edinburgh in 1793. His son Archibald, the 2nd lord (1625-1658), fought under Montrose at Auldearn, at Alford, at Kilsyth and at Philiphaugh, and was afterwards with his famous uncle on the continent of Europe. His son, Archibald, the 3rd lord (d. 1683), was succeeded by special arrangement in the title, first by bis nephew, Thomas Nicolson (1660-1686), a son of his sister Jean and her husband Sir Thomas Nicolson, Bart. (d. 1670), and then by his sister Margaret (d. 1706), the widow of John Brisbane (d. 1684). The 6th lord was Margaret's grandson Francis Scott (c. 1702-1773), a son of Sir William Scott, Bart., of Thirlestane (d. 1725). Francis Scott, who took the additional name of Napier, had a large family, his sons including William, the yth lord, and Colonel George Napier (1751-1804). His famous grandsons are dealt with above. Another literary member of the family was Mark Napier (1798-1879), called by Mr Andrew Lang " the impetuous biographer of Montrose," who wrote Memoirs of John Napier of Merchislon (1834), Montrose and the Covenanters (1838), Memoirs of Montrose (1856), Memorials of Graham of Claverhouse (1859-1862), and a valuable legal work, The Law of Prescription in Scotland (1839 and again 1854). William, 7th Lord Napier (1730-1775), was succeeded as 8th lord by his son Francis (1758- 1823), who, after serving in the English army during the American War of Independence, was lord high commissioner to the general assembly of the Church of Scotland, and compiled a genealogical account of his family which is still in manuscript. His son William John, the 9th lord (1786-1834), who was present at the battle of Trafalgar, was the father of Francis Napier, Lord Napier and Ettrick. Born on the isth of September 1819 Francis entered the diplomatic service in 1840, and was employed in successive posts at Vienna, Constantinople, Naples, Washington and the Hague. During this time he earned the highest opinions both at home and abroad. In 1860 he became ambassador at St Petersburg, and in 1864 at Berlin. In 1866 he was appointed governor of Madras, and was at once confronted with a serious famine in the northern districts. In dealing with this and other problems he showed great activity and practical sense, and he encouraged public works, particularly irrigation. In 1872 he acted for a few months as Viceroy, after Lord Mayo's assassination; and on Lord Northbrook's appointment to the office he returned to England, being created a baron of the United Kingdom (Baron Ettrick of Ettrick) for his services. He continued, both in England and in Scotland, to take great interest in social questions. He was for a time a member of the London School Board, and he was chairman of the Crofters' Commission in 1883, the result of which was the appointment of a permanent body to deal with questions affecting the Scottish crofters and cottars. He died at Florence on the igth of December 1898, leaving a widow and three sons, the eldest of whom, William John George (b. 1846), succeeded to his titles. NAPIER OF MAGDALA, ROBERT CORNELIS NAPIER, IST BARON (1810-1890), British field-marshal, son of Major Charles Frederick Napier, who was wounded at the storming of Meester Cornells (Aug. 26, 1810) in Java and died some months later, was born at Colombo, Ceylon, on the 6th of December 1810. He entered the Bengal Engineers from Addiscombe College in 1826, and after the usual course of instruction at Chatham, arrived in India in November 1828. For some years he was employed in the irrigation branch of the public works department, and in 1838 he laid out the new hill station at Darjeeling. Promoted captain in January 1841, he was ap- pointed to Sirhind, where he laid out cantonments on a new principle — known as the Napier system — for the troops returning from Afghanistan. In December 1845 he joined the army of the Sutlej, and commanded the Engineers at the battle of Mudki, where he had a horse shot under him. At the battle of Ferozeshah on the 3ist December he again had his horse shot under him, and, joining the 3ist Regiment on foot, was severely wounded in storming the entrenched Sikh camp. He was present at the battle of Sobraon on loth February 1846, and in the advance to Lahore; was mentioned in despatches for his services in the campaign, and received a brevet majority. He was chief engineer at the reduction of Kote-Kangra by Brigadier-General Wheeler in May 1846, and received the thanks of government. He was then appointed consulting engineer to the Punjab resident and council of regency, but was again called to the field to direct the siege of Multan. He was wounded in the attack on the entrenched position in September 1848, but was present at the action of Shujabad, the capture of the suburbs, the successful storm of Multan on 23rd January 1849, and the surrender of the fort of Chiniot. He then joined Lord Gough, took part, as commanding engineer of the right wing, in the battle of Gujrat in February 1849, accompanied Sir W. R. Gilbert in his pursuit of the Sikhs and Afghans, and was present at the passage of the Jhelum, the surrender of the Sikh army, and the surprise of Attock. For his services he was mentioned in despatches and received a brevet lieutenant-colonelcy. At the close of the war Napier was appointed civil engineer to the board of administration of the annexed Punjab province, and carried out many important public works during his tenure of office. In December 1852 he commanded a column in the first Hazara expedition, and in the following year against the Boris; and for his services in these campaigns was mentioned in despatches, received the special thanks of government and a brevet-colonelcy. He was appointed military secretary and adjutant-general to Sir James Outram's force for the relief of Lucknow in the Indian Mutiny in 1857, and was engaged in the actions which culminated in the first relief of Lucknow. He directed the defence of Lucknow until the second relief, when he was severely wounded in crossing a very exposed space with Outram and Havelock to meet Sir Colin Campbell. He was chief of the staff to Outram in the defence of the Alambagh position, and drew up the plan of operations for the attack of Lucknow, which was approved by Sir Colin Camp- bell and carried out by Napier, as brigadier-general commanding the Engineers, in March 1858. On the fall of Lucknow Napier was most favourably mentioned in despatches, and made C.B. He joined Sir Hugh Rose as second-in-command in his march on Gwalior, and commanded the 2nd brigade at the action of Morar on the 1 6th June. On the fall of Gwalior he was entrusted with the task of pursuing the enemy. With only 700 men he came up with Tantia Tppi and 1 2,000 men on the plains of Jaora Alipur, and completely defeated him, capturing all his guns (25), ammunition and baggage. On Sir Hugh Rose's departure he took command of the Gwalior division, captured Paori in August, routed Ferozeshah, a prince of the house of Delhi, at Ranode in December, and, in January 1859, succeeded in securing the surrender of Man Singh and Tantia Topi, which ended the war. For his services Napier received the thanks of parliament and of the Indian government, and was made K.C.B. i78 NAPIER— NAPLES In January 1860 Napier was appointed to the command of the 2nd division of the expedition to China under Sir Hope Grant, and took part in the action of Sinho, the storm of the Peiho forts, and the entry to Peking. For his services he received the thanks of parliament, and was promoted major-general for distinguished service in the field. For the next four years Napier was military member of the council of the governor-general of India and, on the sudden death of Lord Elgin, for a short time acted as governor-general, until the arrival of Sir W. T. Denison from Madras. In January 1865 he was given the com- mand of the Bombay army, in March 1867 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and, later in that year, appointed to command the expedition to Abyssinia, selecting his own troops and making all the preparations for the campaign. He arrived at Annesley Bay in the Red Sea early in January 1868, reached Magdala, 420 m. from the coast, in April; stormed the stronghold, freed the captives, razed the place to the ground, returned to the coast, and on the i8th June the last man of the expedition had left Africa. He received for his services the thanks of parlia- ment, a pension, a peerage, the G.C.B. and the G.C.S.I. The freedom of the cities of London and Edinburgh was conferred upon him, with presentation swords, and the universities bestowed upon him honorary degrees. In 1869 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He held the command-in-chief in India for six years from 1870, during which he did much to benefit the army and to encourage good shooting. He was promoted general in 1874, and appointed a colonel-commandant of the Royal Engineers. In 1876 he was the guest of the German crown prince at the military manoeuvres, and from that year until 1883 hdd the government and command of Gibraltar. In the critical state of affairs in 1877 he was nominated com- mander-in-chief of the force which it was proposed to send to Constantinople. In 1879 he was a member of the royal com- mission on army organization, and in November of that year he represented Queen Victoria at Madrid as ambassador extra- ordinary on the occasion of the second marriage of the king of Spain. On the ist of January 1883 he was promoted to be field- marshal, and in December 1886 appointed Constable of the Tower of London. He died in London on the i4th of January 1890. His remains received a state funeral, and were buried in St Paul's Cathedral on the zist of January. He was twice married, and left a large family by each wife, his eldest son, Robert William (b. 1845), succeeding to his barony. A statue of him on horseback by Boehm was erected at Calcutta when he left India, and a replica of it was afterwards set up to his memory in Waterloo Place, London. NAPIER, a seaport on the east coast of North Island, New Zealand, capital of the provincial district of Hawke's Bay, 200 m. by rail N.E. of Wellington. Pop. (1906) 9454. The main portion of the town stretches along the flat shoreland of Hawke's Bay, while the suburbs extend over the hills to the north. The site consists of a picturesque peninsula known as Scinde Island. The harbour (Port Ahuriri) is sheltered by a break- water. The cathedral church of St John (1888) for the bishopric of Waiapu, is one of the finest ecclesiastical buildings in New Zealand, imitating the Early English style in brick. An athenaeum, a small hospital, a lunatic asylum, a philosophical society and an acclimatization society are among the public institutions. The town (named after Sir Charles James Napier) is under municipal government, and returns a member to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The district is agri- cultural, and large quantities of wool and tinned and frozen meats are exported. There is railway communication with Wellington, New Plymouth, and the Wairarapa, Wanganui and Manawatu districts. Numerous old native pas or fortified villages are seen in the neighbourhood. NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis), formerly the capital of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and since 1860 the chief town of the province which bears its name, the smallest province in the kingdom of Italy. It is the largest city in the country, containing 547,503 inhabitants in 1901. It is a prefecture; the see of a cardinal archbishop; the residence of the general commanding the tenth Army Corps and of the admiral com- manding the second Naval Department of Italy; and it possesses also an ancient and important university. Naples disputes with Constantinople the claim of occupying the most beautiful site in Europe. It is situated on the northern shore of the Bay of Naples (Sinus Cumanus), in 40° 52' N., 14° 15' 45" E., as taken from the lighthouse on the mole. By rail it is distant 151 m. from Rome, but the line is circuitous, and a direct electric line was contemplated in 1907, to run nearer the coast and shorten the distance from the capital by more than 30 m. (For map, see ITALY.) The circuit of the bay is about 35 m. from the capo di Miseno on the north-west to the Punta della Campanella on the south-east, or more than 52 m. if the islands of Ischia, at the north-west, and of Capri, at the south entrance, be included. At its opening between these two islands it is 14 m. broad; while another 4 m. separates Capri from the mainland at the Punta della Campanella, and from the opening to its head at Portici the distance is 15 m. It affords good anchorage, with nearly 7 fathoms of water, and is well sheltered, except from winds which blow from points between south-east and south-west. In the latter winds Sorrento should be especially avoided, as no safe anchorage can be found there at less than 15 fathoms, and the same remark applies to Capri with winds from S.W. to N.W. There is a perceptible tide of nearly 9 in. On the north-east shore east of Naples is an extensive flat, forming part of the ancient Campania Felix, and watered by the small stream Sebeto and by the Sarno, which last in classical times formed the port of Pompeii. From this flat, between the sea and the range of the Apennines, rises Mount Vesuvius, at the base of which, on or near the sea-shore, are the populous villages of San Giovanni Teduccio, Portici, Resina, Torre del Greco, Torre dell' Annunziata, &c., and the classic sites of Herculaneum and Pompeii. At the south-east extremity of the plain, 3 m. beyond the outlet of the Sarno, a great offshoot of the Apennines, branching from the main range near Cava, and projecting as a peninsula more than 12 m. west, divides the Bay of Naples from the bay of Salerno (Sinus Paestanus), and ends in the bold promontory of the Punta della Campanella (Promon- torium Minervae), which is separated by a strait of 4 m. from Capri. On the north slope of this peninsula, where the plain ends and the coast abruptly bends to the west, stands the town of Castellammare, near the site of Stabiae, at the foot of Monte Sant' Angelo, which rises suddenly from the sea to a height of 4722 ft. Farther west, and nearly opposite to Naples across the bay, are Vico, Meta, Sorrento, Massa and many villages. The north-west shore to the west of Naples is more broken and irregular. The promontory of Posilipo, which projects due south, divides this part of the bay into two smaller bays — the eastern, with the city of Naples, and the western, or Bay of Baiae, which is sheltered from all winds. A tunnel through the promontory, 2244 ft. long, 21 ft. broad, and in some places as much as 70 ft. high, possibly constructed by Marcus Agrippa in 27 B.C., forms the so-called grotto of Posilipo; at the Naples end stands the reputed tomb of Virgil. Beyond Posilipo is the small island of Nisida (Nesis) ; and at a short distance inland are the extinct craters of Solfatara and Astroni and the lake of Agnano. Farther west, on the coast, and provided with a convenient harbour, stands Pozzuoli (Puteoli), a city containing many Roman remains, but now chiefly remarkable for the large gun- works erected by Messrs Armstrong & Co. ; and beyond it, round the Bay of Baiae, are Monte Nuoyo, a hill thrown up in a single night in September 1538; the classic site of Baiae; the Lucrine Lake; Lake Avernus; the Lake of Fusaro (Acherusia Palus); the Elysian Fields; and the port and promontory of Misenum. Still farther to the south-west lie the islands of Procida (Prochyta) and Ischia (Pilhecusa, Aenaria or Inarime), which divide the Bay of Naples from the extensive Bay of Gaeta. All this country was comprised in classical times under the title of the Phlegrean Fields, and was certainly then more actively volcanic than it now is, although the severe shock of earthquake which occurred in the island of Ischia in 1883 completely destroyed Casamicciola, and did serious damage to Forio, Lacco Ameno and Serrara Fontana, shows that there is great seismic activity in the locality. The whole region abounds with fissures from which steam highly charged with hydrochloric acid is continually issuing, and in many places boiling water is found at a very few feet below the surface. The city of Naples is built at the base and on the slopes of a range of volcanic hills, and, rising from the shore like an amphi- theatre, is seen to best advantage from the sea. From the summit occupied by the castle of St Elmo a transverse ridge runs south to form the promontory of Pizzofalcone, and divides the city into two natural crescents. The western crescent, known as the Chiaja ward, though merely a long narrow strip between the sea NAPLES 179 and Vomero hill, is the fashionable quarter most frequented by foreign residents and visitors. A fine broad street, the Riviera di Chiaja, begun in the dose of the i6th century by Count d'Olivares, and completed by the duke de Medina Celi (1695- 1700), runs for a mile and a half from east to west, ending in the quarter of Mergellina and Piedigrotta at the foot of the hill of Posilipo. In front lie the Villa Communale (first called Reale and subsequently Nazionale) public gardens, the chief promenade of the city, which were first laid out in 1780, and have been successively extended in 1807, in 1834, and again in recent years; and the whole edge of the bay from the Castel dell' Ovo to Mergellina is lined by a massive embankment and carriage- way, the Via Caracciolo, constructed in 1875-1881. The eastern crescent includes by far the largest as well as the oldest portion of Naples — the ports, the arsenal, the principal churches, &c. The best-known thoroughfare is the historic Toledo (as it is still popularly called, though the official name is Via Roma) which runs almost due north from the Piazza (Largo) del Plebiscite in front of the Palazzo Reale, till, as Strada Nuova Di Capodimonte, crossing the Ponte della Sanita (constructed by Murat across the valley between Santa Teresa and Capodi- monte), it reaches the gates of the Capodimonte palace. A drive, the Corso Vittorio Emmanucle, winds along the slopes behind the city from the Str. di Piedigrotta (at the west end of the Riv. di Chiaja) till it reaches the museum by the Via Salvator Rosa. The character of the shore of the eastern crescent has been much altered by the new harbour works, which with the wharves and warehouses have absorbed the Villa del Popolo, or People's Park, originally constructed on land reclaimed from the bay. The streets of Naples are generally well-paved with large blocks of lava or volcanic basalt. In the older districts there is a countless variety of narrow gloomy streets, many of them steep. The houses are mostly five or six storeys high, are covered with stucco made of a kind of pozzolana which hardens by exposure, and have large balconies and flat roofs. The castle of S. Elmo (S. Ermo, S. Erasmus), which dominates the whole city, had its origin in a fort (Belforte) erected by King Robert the Wise in 1543. The present building, with its rock-hewn fosses and massive ramparts, was constructed by Don Pedro de Toledo at the command of Charles V. in 1535, and was long considered practically impregnable. Damaged by lightning in 1857, it was afterwards restored, and is now a military prison. On a small island (I. del Salvatore, the Megaris of Pliny), now joined to the shore at the foot of the Pizzofalcone by an arch- supported causeway, stands the Castel dell' Ovo (so called from its shape, though medieval legend associates the name with the enchanted egg on which the magician Virgil made the safety of the city to depend), which dates from 1154. The walls of its chapel were frescoed by Giotto; but the whole building was ruined by Ferdinand II. in 1495, and had to be restored in the 1 6th century. Castel Nuovo, a very picturesque building con- structed near the harbour in 1283 by Charles I. of Anjou, contains between the round towers of its facade the triumphal arch erected in 1470 to Alphonso I. and renovated in 1905. It numbers among its chambers the Gothic hall of Giovanni Pisano in which Celestine V. abdicated the papal dignity. Castel del Carmine, founded by Ferdinand I. in 1484, was occupied by the populace in Masaniello's insurrection, was used as a prison for the patriots of 1796, became municipal property in 1878, and is now a prison. The royal palace, begun in 1600 by the Count de Lemos, from designs by Domenico Fontana, partly burned in 1837, and since repaired and enlarged by Ferdinand II., is an enormous building with a sea frontage of 800 ft. and a main facade 554 ft. long and 95 ft. high, exhibiting the Doric, Ionic and Composite orders in its three storeys. The statues on the facade of the palace were erected by King Humbert I. in 1885, and represent the titular heads of the various dynasties which have reigned at Naples, beginning with Ruggiero the Norman (1130); followed by Frederick II. of.Suabia (1197); Charles I. of Anjou (1266); Alfonso of Aragon (1442); Charles V. of Spain (1527); Charles III. (Bourbon) of Naples (1744); Gioacchino Murat (1808); and Victor Emmanuel II. (1861). Naples is the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop, always a cardinal. The cathedral has a chapter of thirty canons, and of the numerous religious houses formerly existing very few have in whole or in part survived the suppression in 1868. The city is divided into fifty parishes purely for ecclesiastical purposes, and there are 237 Roman Catholic churches and 57 chapels. Most of the churches are remarkable rather for richness in internal decoration than for architectural beauty. The cathedral of St Januarius, occupying the site of temples of Apollo and Neptune, and still containing some of their original granite columns, was- designed by Nicola Pisano, and erected between 1272 and 1316. Owing to frequent restorations occasioned by earthquakes, it now presents an incongruous mixture of different styles. The general plan is that of a basilica with a nave and two (Gothic vaulted) aisles separated by pilasters. The western facade is of marble and was completed in 1906. Beneath the high altar is a subterranean chapel containing the tomb of St Januarius (San Gcnnaro), the patron saint of the city ; in the right aisle there is a chapel (Cappella del Tespro) built between 1608 and 1637 in popular recognition of his having saved Naples in 1527 " from famine, war, plague and the fire of Vesuvius "; and in a silver tabernacle behind the high altar of this chapel are preserved the two phials partially filled with his blood, the periodical liquefaction of which forms a prominent feature in the religious life of the city. Accessible by a door in the left aisle of the cathedral is the church of Sta Restituta, a basilica of the 7th century, and the original cathedral. Santa Chiara (i4th century) is interesting for a fresco ascribed to Giotto (at one time there were many more), and monuments to Robert the Wise, his queen Mary of Valois and his daughter Mary, empress of Constanti- nople. San Domenico Maggiore, founded by Charles II. in 1285, but completely restored after 1445, has an effective interior particu- larly rich in Renaissance sculpture. In the neighbouring monastery is shown the cell of Thomas Aquinas. San Filippo Neri or dei Gerolomini, erected in the close of the l6th century, has a white marble facade and two campaniles, and contains the tombstone of Giambattista Vico. Sta Maria del Parto, in the Chiaja, occupies the site of the house of Sannazaro, and is named after his poem De Partu Virginis. San Francesco di Paolo, opposite the royal palace, is an imitation of the Pantheon at Rome by Pietro Bianchi di Lugano (1815-1837), and its dome is one of the boldest in Europe. The church of the Certosa (Carthusian monastery) of San Martino, on the hill below St Elmo's castle, has now become in name, as so many of the churches are in reality, a museum. Dating from the idth century, and restored by Fonsega in the J7th, it is a building of extraordinary richness of decoration, with paintings and sculpture by Guido Reni, Lanfranco, Caravaggio, D'Arpino, Solimene, Luca Giordano and notably a " Descent from the Cross " by Ribera, con- considered the finest work of this master. The monastery has been transformed into a medieval museum, where many specimens illustrating the modern history of Naples may be studied, and some fine specimens of majolica from the southern provinces can be inspected. The view from the south-western balcony is incompar- able. The marble cloister by Fpnsega, though rather flamboyant in character, is one of the finest of its kind in existence. Other churches with interesting monuments are Sant" Anna dei Lombardi, built in 1411 by Guerrello Origlia, which contains some splendid marble sculpture, especially Rosellino's " Nativity "in the Cappella Picco- lomini; Sant Angelo a Nilo, which contains the tomb of Cardinal Brancaccio, the joint work of Donatello and Michelozzo; San Giovanni a Carbonara, built in 1344 and enlarged by King Ladislaus in 1400, which contains among much other remarkable sculpture the tomb of the king, the masterpiece of Andrea Ciccione (1414), and that of Sergiami Caracciolo, the favourite of Joanna II., who was murdered in 1432 (the chapel in which it stands is paved with one of the earliest majolica pavements in Italy); San Lorenzo (1324), the Royal Church of the House of Anjou; and, for purely archaeo- logical interest, the Church of Sant' Aspreno, thought to be the oldest Christian church in Italy, in the crypt of the new Borsa or exchange. Persons interested in frescoes will admire those in the former monas- tery at the back of the church of S. Maria Donna Regina and those in the cloister of S. Severino and Sossio. A more ancient Christian monument than any of the convents or churches is the catacombs, which extend a great distance underground and are in many respects finer than those at Rome. The entrance is at the Ospizio dei Poveri di San Gennaro (see Schulze's monograph, Jena, 1877). Of the secular institutions in Naples none is more remarkable than the National Museum, formerly known as the Museo Borbonico. The building, begun in 1586 for vice-regal stables, and remodelled in 1615 for the university, was put to its present use in 1790, when Ferdinand IV. proclaimed it his private property independently of the crown, placed in it the Farnese collection which he had inherited from his father, and all the specimens from Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae, Puteoli, Paestum, &c., which till then had been housed in the palace at Portici, and gave it the name of Real Museo Borbonico. In 1860 i8o NAPLES Garibaldi, when dictator at Naples, proclaimed the museum and the territory devoted to excavation to be the property of the nation, since which time it has been called the National Museum. Vast numbers of specimens have since been added to it both by purchase and from excavations, and it is now unique as a treasure house of Italo-Greek and Roman antiquities, besides containing a fine library and an important collection of pictures. A large additional space for exhibits was made in 1904, when the western half of the second floor was added, and the building as now arranged contains the large bronzes and statues on the ground floor; a gallery of Pompeian frescoes in the entresol; the library, picture gallery and small bronzes on the first floor; and the glass, jewelry, arms, papyri, gems, and the unique collection of Italo- Greek vases, on the second floor. The large bronzes are almost the only ones which have survived from classical times, the most famous of them being the seated Mercury and the dancing Faun; the marbles reckon among their vast number the Psyche, the Capuan Venus, the portraits of Homer and Julius Caesar, as well as the huge group called the Toro Farnese (Amphion and Zethus tying Dirce to its horns), the Farnese Hercules, the excellent though late statues of the Balbi on horseback and a very fine collection of ancient portrait busts. Modern Buildings. — The Galleria Umberto I. is a large cruci- form arcade opened in 1890. It somewhat resembles the Milan arcade, and has an octagon in the centre, with a cupola. It is highly ornamented with gilt and stucco. A music-hall occupies the basement. The Galleria Principe di Napoli is in a smaller arcade opposite to the National Museum, mainly occupied by shops where reproductions from the museum are sold. The Galleria Vittoria, opened in 1907, is a circular building with handsome dome, situated near the main entrance of the Villa Communale. It is in great part occupied by offices and shops. The Anglican church in Vico San Pasquale was built in 1862 on ground given to the British community by Garibaldi when dictator, and was the first Protestant church erected in Naples. Since the granting of religious liberty evangelical churches have been built by the Presbyterians, Wesleyans, French, Germans and Italians. A Greek church and a Jewish synagogue have also been opened. The Borsa (or exchange) is a fine building in the Piazza of the same name, built over the remains of the very ancient church of Sant' Aspreno, which are still preserved in the crypt. In front of it is the fine 16th-century Fontana Medina. Educational and Learned Institutions. — The university of Naples is one of the oldest in Italy, having been founded by Frederick II. in the first half of the I3th century. It had fallen to insignificance under the Bourbons, but since 1860 it has rapidly recovered. It comprises five faculties (literature and philosophy, jurisprudence, mathematics, natural science and medicine), and is well equipped with zoological, mineralogical and geological museums, a physio- logical institute, a cabinet of anthropology, and botanical gardens. Originally erected in 1557 for the use of the Jesuits, the university buildings are regarded as the best work of Marco di Pino; the quadrangle, surrounded by a simple but effective peristyle, contains statues of Pietro della Vigna (Frederick's chancellor), Thomas Aquinas and Giordano Bruno. The new building, the shell of which was completed in 1906, faces the Rettifilo, a new wide street which leads from the Borsa in a straight line to the railway station; at the back it joins the former building, which is at a higher level. On the other or north side of the ancient building, and at the back of the Strada Constantinopoli, very large annexes have been formed for the medical school. The famous zoological station at Naples, whose aquarium is the principal building in the Villa Communale, is not connected with the university. It was founded by Dr Dohrn in 1872; a large annexe was added to it a few years later on its western side, and a larger annexe on the eastern side was completed in 1907. The aquarium was originally established at Naples because the flora and fauna of the neighbourhood are more varied than those of any district in Europe. Its Mittheilungen began to be pub- lished in 1878, and portions of a great work on the flora and fauna of Naples come out year by year. It is justly considered the first as well as the oldest of the zoological stations of the world, and the chief universities pay £100 a year for tables to which they send -students. At these tables every necessary is provided, each student having his own tanks with salt water laid on for keeping his speci- mens, and all necessary chemicals being provided. Of other scientific institutions we .may mention the observatory on Vesuvius, which is 'supported entirely by funds from the government, but is annexed informally to the university. Its object is to record earth-movements and volcanic phenomena. The Specola or astronomical observatory is also a government institution, and forms no official part of the university. It is situated on the hill of Capodimonte. The Royal Society of Naples, dating from 1756, was reconstituted in 1861, and is divided into three academies, namely: moral and political; physical and mathematical; letters, archaeology and fine arts. The famous Accademia Ppntaniana, founded by Antonio Becardella (surnamed Panormita owing to his origin from Palermo) and J. J. Pontanus in 1442, was restored in 1808 and still exists. The Royal School for Oriental Languages owes its existence to Matteo Ripa.who in 1732 established a school for Chinese mission- aries. The Royal Conservatory of Music in S. Pietro a Majella has existed in one form or other since 1760, and has had many famous pupils. Elementary education has proceeded with great rapidity, and there are ninety public elementary shools in the city, twenty-three ecclesiastical gratuitous schools and many evangelical schools at a very small payment. The higher grade schools are also numerous, and there are special foreign schools established by private enterprise for the education of the children of foreign residents. There are three schools for the blind and two for deaf-mutes. Libraries — The state archives in Vico San Severo e Sossio contain all. the records of past governments; the Notarial archives in Via San Paolo contain all the original notarial acts from 1450 onwards, to the number of 800,000. The Royal national library in the building of the national museum contains 364,000 volumes and 7835 manu- scripts, many of which are of great value. The musical archives are kept here as a separate department. The Royal library of San Giacomo (100,000 vols.) had its origin in the Palace library of the Bourbon times. There may also be mentioned the Royal University library, the Royal Brancacciana library in Via Donnaromita, with 125,000 vols. and 2000 important MSS., the Gerolomini library, mainly of ecclesiastical books and codices, and the Provincial library in Via Duomo, consisting mainly of technical books. The Biblioteca Communale, and the rich collection of seismic and vulcanological books made by the Italian Alpine Club, are both in charge of the Societa di Storia Patria. This literary society was established in 1875, by a committee of private gentlemen anxious to record all possible details of the history of the locality. It has a good though not perfect collection of the early Neapolitan newspapers, a complete file of the principal modern ones and many interesting MSS. The society is governed by a council of literary men, and issues publi- cations from time to time. The Zoological Station or Aquarium has a very fine biological library. Theatres. — The San Carlo opera-house, with its area of 5157 sq. yds. and its pit capable of seating 1000 spectators, is one of the largest in Europe. It was originally built in 1737 under Charles III., but was destroyed by fire in 1816 and completely rebuilt. It was heavily subsidized in the Bourbon times, but now, except for giving the house, which is the property of the municipality, no assistance is granted from the public funds. The Mercadante is also a municipal theatre, but has no subsidy. The Bellini is a fine opera-house near the museum, and the other chief theatres are the Sannazzaro, Politeama and Fiorentini. Numerous music halls have sprung up of late years, of which the principal is the Salone Marghenta in the basement of the Galleria Umberto Primo. Charities. — Charitable institutions are numerous in Naples. The Reclusorio or poorhouse was founded in the l8th century, and besides being a refuge for the indigent poor has a series of industrial schools attached, at which foundling boys are educated and taught trades. The principal hospitals are the Incurabili, Gesu e Maria, Santa Maria della Pace and a hospital for poor priests, which are all under the same management. The Pellegrini is exclusively surgical; the Santa Maria di Loreto is especially for the inmates of the Reclusorio and for street accidents; the Qspedale Lina for children; and the Ospedale Cotugno for infectious diseases. There is also an Inter- national hospital for the treatment of others than Italians, which was built by Lady Harriet Bentinck and is managed by an inter- national committee; a German hospital; and a hospital erected by the representatives of Baron Adolphe de Rothschild. There are two public lunatic asylums in the city, and another at the neighbour- ing town of Aversa; and many private asylums, among which Fleurent, Miano and Ponti Rossi may be mentioned. Harbour. — At a very early date the original harbour at Naples, now known in its greatly reduced state as Porto Piccolo, and fit only for boats and lighters, became too small. In 1302 Charles II. of Anjou began the construction of the Porto Grande by forming the Molo Grande or San Gennaro, which stretched eastward into the bay, and was terminated by a lighthouse in the I5th century. By the addition of a new pier running north-east from the lighthouse, and protected by a heavily armed battery, Charles III. in 1740 a'dded greatly to the safety of the harbour. In 1826 the open area to the south of the Porto Grande was formed 'into the Porto Militare by the construction of the Molo San Vincenzo, 1200 ft. long. Shortly after the formation of the new kingdom of Italy attention was called to the insufficiency of the harbour for modern wants ; and new works were begun in 1862. Besides the lengthening of the Molo San Vincenzo to a total of more than 5000 ft., the scheme as now carried out has completely revolutionized the harbour. A cross piece at the end of the Molo San Vincenzo has made the head of that structure into the form of the Greek letter gamma, thus affording considerable protection to the anchorage. New quays have been made all the way from the old Immacolatella landing-place to the new and spacious Capitaneria di Porto, on the eastern side of which is a new NAPLES 181 harbour used mainly for the coal trade, and piers such that the largest liner can lie alongside the jetty. The outer mole of this harbour runs out from the Castel del Carmine towards the south for some 1500 ft. and forms the inner side of the new steam basin, which when nearly completed in 1906 fell in on the farther side, and had to be re- constructed. The depth of this new harbour is from 25 to 30 ft. There are two projecting moles, one to the inner harbour and the second to the steam basin. In 1905 the total tonnage entering the port amounted to 4,698,872 tons, of which the Italians (including their coasting trade) carried 1,410,192 tons in 3687 vessels; the Germans 1,391,585 tons in 356 vessels; the British 1,136,345 tons in 402 vessels; and the French 245,206 tons in 161 vessels. Naples is the principal port for emigration, chiefly to North and South America; 281 emigrant ships sailed in 1905, carrying 216,103 emi- grants. The total imports for that year reached the sum of £5,397,918, and the exports £3,367,805. The articles dealt in are wine, oil, spirits, drugs, tobacco, chemicals, hemp, cotton, wool, silk, timber, paper, leather and hides, metal, glass, cereals and live animals. The largest export was to the United States (£864,562), the next to Great Britain (£701,387), while the largest imports were from Great Britain (£1,233,410) and the United States (£807,564). The speciali- ties of Naples are the manufacture of coral, tortoise-shell, kid gloves and macaroni, but it has been growing also as an industrial centre. The port of Naples is second in the kingdom, and owns no rival save Genoa. Water Supply. — Since 1884 Naples has had as fine a water supply as any city in Europe. It is derived from the hills in the neighbour- hood of Avellino, and is thought to be the effluent of an underground lake. It rushes out from the hillside and is received in a covered masonry canal, whence it flows in large iron pipes till it reaches five enormous reservoirs constructed just opposite to the entrance gates of the royal palace at Capodimonte. Hence it comes by natural gravitation into the town at a pressure of five atmospheres, so that it supplies the highest parts of the town with abundant water. The water is so cold that in the hottest summer perishable articles can be preserved by merely securing them in a closed vessel and allowing the water to drip upon it. The supply was brought into the town just after the terrible cholera outbreak of 1884, and as each new standpipe was erected in the streets every well within 200 yds. of it was closed, so that in a short time no well remained in the town; and thus a fertile source of infection was eliminated. Every house in the town and suburbs is now supplied with a constant supply of pure water. The effect on the health of the city has been extra- ordinary. Cholera epidemics, which used to be frequent, have become things of the past, and there is now abundant water for public fountains, washing the streets and watering gardens both public and private. The old sewers were found quite inadequate to carry off the large increase of water, and besides they all led directly into the bay, causing a terrible odour and rendering the water near the town unwholesome for bathing. This has been remedied by a system of sewers, which after passing by a tunnel through the hill of Posilipo cross the plain beyond and discharge their contents into the open sea on the deserted coast of Cumae, 1 7 m. from the city of Naples. The old aqueduct, which was constructed in the I7th century by_ Carnignanp and Criminelli and taps the Isclero at Sant" Agata dei Goti, is still available to a certain extent, but its water was never very wholesome, and as it was not laid on to houses but only supplied fountains and house cisterns which have since been filled up, no account need be taken of it. The solitary Leone fountain, a spring which supplied drinking water to the west end of the town, has been dry for many years. Modern Growth. — Naples, the most densely peopled city in Europe, has increased in modern times at an enormous rate. On the large areas reclaimed from the sea, vast hotels and mansions let in flats have been erected. The gardens at the west end of the town are all built over. The Vomero, once merely a scattered village, is now an important suburb, and a large workmen's quarter has sprung up beyond the railway station to house the populace which was turned out from the centre of the town when the works of the risanamento were undertaken. The increase in population between the census of 1881, when it was 461,962, and the census in 1901 was 85,521. The commune, which includes not only the urban districts (sezioni) of San Ferdinando, Chiaja, S. Giuseppe, Monte Calvario, Awocata, Stella, San Carlo all' Arena, Vicaria, San Lorenzo, Mercato, Pendino and Porto, but also the suburban districts of Vomero, Posilipo, Fuorigrotta, Miano and Piscinola, has been built over in every direction, one great incentive being the creation of an industrial zone to the eastward of the city. This zone has been set aside for the purpose of industrial development, and all persons or companies who set up industrial concerns on it have grants of land at a nominal price, are free of taxes for ten years and have electric force supplied to them at a very low figure. The law came into force in 1906, and was immediately followed by the erection of a large number of factories, for spinning silk, cotton, jute and wool, and the making of railway plant, auto- mobiles, the building of ships, and in fact almost every kind of industry. After the cholera epidemic of 1884, M. Depretis, then premier, visited Naples, and in the course of a public speech gave vent to the famous dictum " Bisogna sventrare Napoli "- " Naples must be disembowelled! " Plans were at once made to pull down all the worst slums, and as these lay between the centre of the town and the railway station, a wide street was constructed from the centre of the town to the eastward, and on each side of it wide strips of ground were cleared to afford building sites for shops and offices. The funds for this vast undertaking were found partly by the state, which voted £3,000,000, and as to the rest by the Risanamento Company, which had a capital of £1,200,000. Before beginning operations of demolition it was obviously necessary to provide homes for the poor people who would be turned out, and a large working- class quarter was erected to the north and beyond the railway station. This quarter has wide airy streets and lofty houses, and though perhaps the houses were let at prices which were beyond the purses of the lowest class, the result of their erection was to cause a number of the poorer houses in the old town to be vacated, thus giving an opportunity to the lowest class to be at any rate better housed than they were before. The quarter described above is known as the Rione Vasto. There are also new middle-class quarters at Santa Lucia, Vomero Nuovo and Sant' Efremo, and better houses in the Via Sirignano, on the Riviera di Chiaja, Via Elena and Via Caracciolo at Mergellina, Via Partenope near the Chiatamone, and an aristocratic quarter in the large extensions made in the Rione Amedeo. The narrow alleys of Porto, Pendino and Mercato have nearly all disappeared, and old Naples has been vanishing day by day. One notable result of the widening of the streets has been the spread of the electric tramways, which traverse the town in various directions and are admirably served by a Belgian company. The city is mainly lighted by electricity, which has also found its way into all the public edifices and most private houses. Folk-lore. — The attention of antiquarians to the charms against the Evil Eye used by the inhabitants of the Neapolitan provinces was first drawn in 1888, when it was shown that they were all derived from the survival of ancient classical legends which had sprung from various sources in connexion with classical sites in the neighbourhood. These may be divided into three classes: first, the sprig of rue in silver, with sundry emblems attached to it, all of which refer to the worship of Diana, whose shrine at Capua was of considerable importance; secondly, the serpent charms, which formed part of the worship of Aesculapius, and were no doubt derived largely from the ancient eastern ophiolatry; and lastly charms derived from the legends of the Sirens. A special confirmation is given in this case, as the Siren is represented mounted on her sea- horse crossing the Styx upon the vase of Pluto and Proserpine in the collection of the Naples Museum. This vase dates about 250 B.C., and the Siren charms represent her in the same way, but usually mounted on two sea-horses. The sea-horse and the Siren alone are commonly found as charms; the Siren being sometimes in her fishtail form and sometimes in the form of a harpy. History. — All ancient writers agree in representing Naples as a Greek settlement, though its foundation is obscurely and differently narrated. The earliest Greek settlement in the neighbourhood was at Pithecusa (Ischia), but the colonists, being driven out of the island by the frequent earthquakes, settled on the mainland at Cumae, where they found a natural acropolis of great strategic value. From Cumae they colonized Dikearchia (Pozzuoli) and probably subsequently Palaeopolis. The site of Palaeopolis has given rise to much discussion, but the researches by R. T. Giinther open completely new ground, and seem to be the correct solution of the problem. He places Palaeopolis at Gaiola Point and has discovered the remains of the harbour, the town hall and various other rudiments of the ancient city. This site, moreover, corresponds with Livy's testimony, and would account for his statement that the towns of Palaeopolis and Neapolis were near together and identical in language and government. This opinion about the site of Palae- opolis has been based on the very considerable alterations which are known to have taken place in the level of the land, and the 182 NAPLES, KINGDOM OF extensive submerged foundations of buildings off the southern ex- tremity of Posilipo have been identified with those of the old city. Parthenope, as well as Dikearchia, was formed as a new colony from Cumae, and was so called from a legendary connexion of the locality with the siren of that name, whose tomb was still shown in the time of Strabo. Parthenope was situated where Naples now stands, upon the splendid natural acropolis formed by the hill of Pizzofalcone, and defended on the land side by a fosse which is now the Strada di Chiaja, and a massive wall, of which remains may still be traced at the back of the existing houses. To the colonists of Parthenope there came afterwards a considerable addition from Athens and Chalcis, and they built themselves a town which they called Neapolis, or the " new city," in contradistinction to the old settlement, which- in con- sequence was styled Palaeopolis or the " old city." The name of Parthenope became lost, and the city of Palaeopolis fell into gradual decadence. In 328 B.C. the Palaeopolitans having provoked the hostility of Rome by their incursions upon her Campanian allies, the consul Publilius Philo marched against them, and having taken his position between the old and the new city, laid regular siege to Palaeopolis. By the aid of a strong Samnite garrison which they received, the Palaeopolitans were long able to withstand the attacks of the consul; but at length the city was betrayed into the hands of the Romans by two of her citizens. Neapolis possibly surrendered to the consul without any resistance, as it was received on favourable terms, had its liberties secured by a treaty, and obtained the chief authority, ' which previously seems to have been enjoyed by the older city. From that time Palaeopolis totally disappeared from history, and Neapolis became an allied city (Joederata civitas) — a dependency of Rome, to whose alliance it remained constantly faithful, even in the most trying circumstances. In 280 B.C. Pyrrhus unsuccessfully attacked its walls; and in the Second Punic War Hannibal was deterred by their strength from attempting to make himself master of the town. During the civil wars of Marius and Sulla a body of partisans of the latter, having entered it by treachery (82 B.C.), made a general massacre of the inhabitants; but Neapolis soon recovered, as it was again a flourishing city in the time of Cicero. It became a municipium after the passing of the lex Julia; under the empire it is noticed as a colonia, but the time when it first obtained that rank is uncertain — possibly under Claudius. Though a municipal town, Neapolis long retained its Greek culture and institutions; and even at the time of Strabo it had gymnasia and quinquennial games, and was divided into phratriae after the Greek fashion. When the Romans became masters of the world, many of their upper classes, both before the close of the republic and under the empire, from a love of Greek manners and literature or from indolent and effeminate habits, resorted to Neapolis, either for the education and the cultivation of gymnastic exercises or for the enjoyment of music and of a soft and luxurious climate. Hence we find Neapolis variously styled — by Horace otiosa Neapolis, by Martial docta Parthenope, by Ovfd in otia natam Parthenopen. It was the favourite residence of many of the emperors; Nero made his first appearance on the stage in one of its theatres; Titus assumed the office of its archon; and Hadrian became its demarch. It was chiefly at Neapolis that Virgil composed his Georgia; and he was buried on the hill of Pausilypus, the modern Posilipo, in its neighbourhood. It was also the favourite residence of the poets Statius (A.D. 61) and Silius Italicus (A.D. 25), the former of whom was a Neapolitan by birth. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Neapolis suffered severely during the Gothic wars. Having espoused the Gothic cause in the year 536, it was taken, after a protracted siege, by Belisarius, who turned aside an aqueduct, marched by surprise into the city through its channel, and put many of the inhabitants to the sword. In 542 Totila besieged it and compelled it to surrender, but being soon after recovered by Narses, it remained long a dependency of the exarchate of Ravenna, under the immediate government of a duke, appointed by the East Roman emperors. When the Lombards invaded Italy and pushed their conquests in the southern provinces, the limits of the Neapolitan duchy were considerably narrowed. In the beginning of the 8th century, at the time of the iconoclastic controversy, the emperor Leo the Isaurian having forced compliance to his edict against the worshipping of images, the Neapolitans, encouraged by Pope Gregory HI., threw off their allegiance to the Eastern emperors, and established a republican form of government under a duke of their own appointment. Under this regime Neapolis retained independence for nearly four hundred years, though constantly struggling against the powerful Lombard dukes of Benevento, who twice unsuccessfully besieged it. In 1027, however, Pandulf IV'., a Lombard prince of Capua, succeeded in making himself master of it; but he was expelled in 1030 by Duke Sergius, chiefly through the aid of a few Norman adventurers. The Normans, in their turn, gradually superseded all powers, whether Greek, Lombard or republican, which had previously divided the south of Italy, and furthermore checked the Saracens in the advances they were making through Apulia. From the date at which the south of Italy and Sicily were subjugated by the Normans the history of Naples ceases to be the history of a republic or a city, and becomes that of a kingdom, sometimes separate, sometimes merged, with the kingdom of Sicily, in that of the Two Sicilies. The city of Naples hence- forth formed the metropolis of the kingdom to which it gave its name, owing this pre-eminence to its advantageous position on the side of Italy towards Sicily, and to the favour of successive princes (see NAPLES, KINGDOM OF). BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Ackerman, Naples and the Campagna Felice (1816); Craven, Tour through the Southern Provinces of Naples (1821); R. T. Gunther, Earth Movements in the Bay of Naples (Oxford, 1905); Rolfe and Ingleby, Naples in 1888 (London, 1888); Black, Naples in the Nineties (1897); Arthur Norway, Naples, Past and Present (London, 1901); Miss Jex Blake, The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art (London, 1896). (E. N.-R.) NAPLES, KINGDOM OF, the name conventionally given to the kingdom of Sicily on the Italian mainland (Sicily beyond the Pharos), to distinguish it from that of Sicily proper (Sicily on this side of the Pharos, i.e. Messina), the title of "King of Naples " having only actually been borne by Philip II. of Spain in the i6th century (" King of England and Naples ") and by Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat in the igth. The history of the kingdom of Naples is inextricably interwoven with that of Sicily, with which for long periods it was united as the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. For the earlier history of Naples and its territory, as a republic and a dukedom, see NAPLES above, and for the coming of the Normans see SICILY and NORMANS. It is sufficient here to state that the leaders of the house of Hauteville, Robert Guiscard and Richard of Aversa, in 1059 did homage to Pope Nicholas II. ( tne Spaniards, who could not crush the Messina, rising, called in the Dutch. Louis XIV. sent a fleet under the due de Vivonne to Sicily, which defeated the Dutch under de Ruyter in 1676. But at the peace of Nijmwegen (1679) Louis treacherously abandoned the Messinese, who suffered cruel persecution at the hands of the Spaniards and lost all their privileges. An anti-Spanish conspiracy of Neapolitan nobles, led by Macchia, with the object of proclaiming the archduke Charles of Austria king of Naples, was discovered; but in 1707 an Austrian army conquered the kingdom, and Spanish rule came to an end after 203 years, during which it had succeeded in thoroughly demoralizing the people. In Sicily the Spaniards held their own until the peace of Utrecht in 1 7 1 3 , when the island was given over to Duke Matter Victor of Savoy, who assumed the title of king. In Savoy. 1718 he had to hand back his new possession to Spain, who, in 1720, surrendered it to Austria and gave Sardinia to Victor Amadeus. In 1733 the treaty of the Escurial Charles 111. between France, Spain and Savoy against Austria was signed. Don Carlos of Bourbon, son of Philip V. of Spain, easily conquered both Naples and Sicily, and in 1738 he was recognized as king of the Two Sicilies, Spain renouncing all her claims. Charles was well received, for the country now was an independent kingdom once more. With the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci as his minister, he introduced many useful reforms, improved the army, which was thus able to repel an Austrian invasion in 1744, embellished the city of Naples and built roads. In 1759 Charles III., having succeeded to the Spanish crown, abdicated that of the Two Sicilies in favour of his son Ferdinand, who became Ferdinand IV. of Naples and III. of Sicily. Being only eight years old, a regency under Tanucci was appointed, and the young king's education was purposely neglected by the minister, who wished to yv_ dominate him completely. The regency ended in 1767, and the following year Ferdinand married the masterful and ambitious Maria Carolina, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. She had Tanucci dismissed and set herself to the task of making Naples a great power. With the help of John Acton, an English- man whom she made minister in the place of Tanucci, she freed Naples from Spanish influence and secured a rapprochement with England and Austria. On the outbreak of the French Revolution the king and queen were not at first hostile to the new movement; but after the fall of the French monarchy they became violently opposed to it, and in 1793 joined the first coalition against France, instituting severe persecutions against all who were remotely suspected of French sympathies. Republicanism, however, gained ground, especially among the aristocracy. In 1796 peace with France was concluded, but in 1798, during Napoleon's absence in Egypt and after Nelson's victory at Aboukir, Maria Carolina induced Ferdinand to go to war with France once more. Nelson arrived in Naples in September, where he was enthusiastically received. The king, after a somewhat farcical occupation of Rome, which had been evacuated by the French, hurried back to Naples as soon as the French attacked his troops, and although the lazzaroni (the lowest class of the people) were devoted to the dynasty and ready to defend it, he fled with the court to Palermo in a panic on board Nelson's ships. The wildest confusion prevailed, and the lazzaroni jnassacred numbers of persons suspected of republican sympathies, while the nobility and the educated classes, finding themselves abandoned by their king in this cowardly manner, began to contemplate a republic under French auspices as their only means of salvation from anarchy. In January 1799 the French under Championnet reached Naples, but the lazzaroni, ill-armed and ill-disciplined "$£each la as they were, resisted the enemy with desperate Naples courage, and it was not until the 2oth that the invaders ana the were masters of the city. On the 23rd the Partheno- paean republic was proclaimed. The Republicans were men of culture and high character, but doctrinaire and unpractical, and they knew very little of the lower classes of their own country. The government soon found itself in financial difficulties, owing to Championnet 's demands for money; it failed to organize the army, and met with scant success in its attempts to "democratize " the provinces. Meanwhile the court at Palermo sent Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo, a wealthy and influential prelate, to Calabria, to organize a counter-revolution. He succeeded beyond expectation, ana the and with his " Christian army of the Holy Faith " Sa"m (Esercito Cristiano della Santa Fede), consisting of brigands, convicts, peasants and some soldiers, marched through the kingdom plundering, burning and massacring. An English squadron approached Naples and occupied the island of Procida, but after a few engagements with the Republican fleet com- manded by Caracciolo, an ex-officer in the Bourbon navy, it was recalled to Palermo, as the Franco-Spanish fleet was expected. Ruffo, with the addition of some Russian and Turkish allies, now marched on the capital, whence the French, save for a small force under Mejean, withdrew. The scattered Republican detachments were defeated, only Naples and Pescara holding i86 NAPLES, KINGDOM OF out. On the I3th of June Ruffo and his hordes reached Naples, and after a desperate battle at the Ponte della Maddalena, entered the city. For weeks the Calabresi and lazzaroni continued to pillage and massacre, and Ruffo was unable, even if willing, to restrain them. But the Royalists were not masters of the city, for the French in Castel Sant' Elmo and the Republicans in Castelnuovo and Castel dell' Uovo still held out and bombarded the streets, while the Franco-Spanish fleet might arrive at any moment. Consequently Ruffo was desperately anxious to come to terms with the Republicans for the evacuation of the castles, in spite of the queen's orders to make no terms with the rebels. After some negotiation an armistice was concluded and a capitu- lation agreed upon, whereby the castles were to be evacuated, the hostages liberated and the garrisons free to remain in Naples unmolested or to sail for Toulon. While the vessels were being prepared for the voyage to Toulon all the hostages in the castles were liberated save four; but on the 24th of June Nelson arrived with his fleet, /Vap/es.a ano< on hearing of the capitulation he refused to recognize it save in so far as it concerned the French. Ruffo indignantly declared that once the treaty was signed, not only by himself but by the Russian and Turkish commandants and by the British captain Foote, it must be respected, and on Nelson's refusal he said that he would not help him to capture the castles. On the 26th Nelson changed his attitude and authorized Sir William Hamilton, the British minister, to inform the cardinal that he (Nelson) would do nothing to break the armistice; while Captains Bell and Troubridge wrote that they had Nelson's authority to state that the latter would not oppose the embarcation of the Republicans. Although these expressions were equivocal, the Republicans were satisfied and embarked on the vessels prepared for them. But on the 28th Nelson received despatches from the court (in reply to his own), in conse- quence of which he had the vessels brought under the guns of his ships, and many of the Republicans were arrested. Caracciolo, who had been caught whilst attempting to escape from Naples, was tried by a court-martial of Royalist officers under Nelson's auspices on board the admiral's flagship, condemned to death and hanged at the yard arm. For the part played by Nelson in these transactions see the articles CARACCIOLO and NELSON. On the 8th of July, King Ferdinand arrived from Palermo, and the state trials, conducted in the most arbitrary fashion, resulted in wholesale butchery; hundreds of persons vengeance. were executed, including some of the best men in the country, such as the philosopher Mario Pagano. the scientist Cirillo, Manthone, the minister of war under the re- public, Massa, the defender of Castel dell' Uovo, and Ettore Caraffa, the defender of Pescara, who had been captured by treachery, while thousands of others were immured in horrible dungeons or exiled. War with France continued until March 1801, when peace was made, and after the peace of Amiens in 1802 the court returned to Naples, where it was well received. But when the European war broke out again in the following year, Napoleon (then first consul) became very exacting in his demands on King Ferdinand, who consequently played a double game, appearing to accede to these demands while negotiating with England. After Austerlitz Napoleon revenged himself by de- claring that " the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign," and sent an army under his brother Joseph to occupy the kingdom. Ferdinand and Maria Carolina fled to Palermo in January 1805; in February 1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples as king. A cultivated, well-meaning, not very in- Booaparte. telligent man, he introduced many useful reforms on a basis of benevolent despotism, abolished feudalism and built roads, but the taxes and forced contributions which he levied proved very burdensome. Joseph's authority did not exist throughout a large part of the kingdom, where royalist risings, led by brigand chiefs, maintained a state of anarchy, and a British force under Sir John Stuart, which landed in Calabria from Sicily, defeated the French at Maida (July 6th, 1806). Both the French and the royalists committed atrocities, and many conspirators in Naples were tried by the French state courts and shot. In 1808 Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on Joseph, and appointed Joachim Murat king of Naples. Murat continued Joseph's reforms, swept away many old abuses and reorganized the army; and although he introduced the French codes and conferred many appointments and estates on Frenchmen, his administration was more or less native, and he favoured the abler Neapolitans. His attempts to attack the English in Sicily ended disastrously, but he succeeded in crushing brigandage in Calabria by means of General Manhes, who, however, had to resort to methods of ferocity in order to do so. The king, owing to his charm of manner, his handsome face, and his brilliant personality, gained many sympathies, and began to aspire to absolute independence. He gradually became estranged from Napoleon, and although he followed him to Russia and afterwards took part in the German campaign, he secretly opened negotiations with Austria and Great Britain. In January 1814 he signed a treaty with Austria, each power guaranteeing the dominions of the other, while Sicily was to be left to Ferdinand. The following month he proclaimed his separation from Napoleon and marched against Eugene Beauharnais, the French viceroy of Lombardy. But no important engagements took place, and when Napoleon escaped from Elba, Murat suddenly returned to the allegiance of his old chief. He marched at the head of 35,000 men into northern Italy, and from Rimini issued his famous proclamation in favour of Italian independence, which at the time fell on deaf ears (March 3Oth, 1815). He was subsequently defeated by the Austrians several times and forced to retreat, and on the i8th of May he sailed from Naples for France (see MURAT, JOACHIM). Generals Guglielmo Pepe and Carrascosa now concluded a treaty with the Austrians at Casalanza on favourable terms, and on the 23rd the Austrians entered Naples to restore Bourbon rule. Ferdinand and Maria Carolina had continued to reign in Sicily, where the extravagance of the court and the odious Neapolitan system of police espionage rendered their presence a burden instead of a blessing to the island. The king aour6ons obtained a subsidy from Great Britain and allowed in Sicily. British troops to occupy Messina and Agosta, so that they might operate against the French on the mainland. A bitter conflict broke out between the court and the parliament, and the British minister, Lord William Bentinck, favoured the opposition, forced Ferdinand to resign his authority and appoint his son regent and introduced many valuable reforms. The queen perpetually intrigued against Bentinck, and jj>e even negotiated with the French, but in 1812 a more English liberal constitution on British lines was introduced, and constitu~ a Liberal ministry under the princes of Castelnuovo and Belmonte appointed, while the queen was exiled in the following year. But after the fall of Napoleon Sicily ceased to have any importance for Great Britain, and Bentinck, whose memory is still cherished in the island, departed in 1814. Ferdinand succeeded in getting a reactionary ministry appointed, and dissolved parliament in May 1815, after concluding a treaty with Austria — now freed by Murat's defection from her engage- ments with him — for the recovery of his mainland dominions by means of an Austrian army paid for by himself. On the 9th of June Ferdinand re-entered Naples and bound fae himself in a second treaty with Austria not to introduce restora- a constitutional government;1 but at first he abstained from persecution and received many of Murat's old officers into his army in accordance with the treaty of Casalanza. In October 1815 Murat, believing that he still had a strong party in the kingdom, landed with a few companions at Pizzo 1 The secret article of the treaty of June 12, 1815, runs as follows: " H.M. the King of the Two Sicilies, in re-establishing the govern- ment of the kingdom, will not agree to any changes irreconcilable either with the ancient institutions of the monarchy or with the principles adopted by H.I. and R. Austrian Majesty for the internal regime of his Italian provinces." It is to be noted that this did not involve the obligation of interfering with the ancient constitution of Sicily, which Metternich desired to see remain undisturbed. NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 187 di Calabria, but was immediately captured by the police and the peasantry, court-martialled and shot. Ferdinand to some extent maintained French legislation, but otherwise reorganized the state with Metternich's approval on Bourbon lines; he proclaimed himself king of the Two Sicilies at the congress of Vienna, incorporating Naples and Sicily into one state, and abolished the Sicilian constitution (December 1816). In 1818 he concluded a Concordat with the Church, by which the latter renounced its suzerainty over the kingdom, but was given control over education, the censorship and many other privileges. But there was much disaffection throughout the country, and the Carbonarist lodges, founded in The Murat's time with the object of freeing the country from foreign rule and obtaining a constitution, had •made much progress (see CARBONARI). The army indeed was honeycombed with Carbonari, and General Pepe, himself a member of the society, organized them on a military basis. In July 1820 a military mutiny broke out at Caserta, led by two officers and a priest, the mutineers demanding a constitution although professing loyalty to the king. Ferdinand, feeling himself helpless to resist, acceded to the demand, appointed a ministry composed of Murat's old adherents, and entrusted his authority to his son. The ultra-democratic single-chamber Spanish constitution of 1812 was introduced, but proved utterly unworkable. The new government's first difficulty was Sicily, where the people had risen in rebellion demanding their own charter of 1812, and although the Neapolitan troops quelled the outbreak with much bloodshed the division proved fatal to the prospects of'liberty. The outbreak of the military rising in Naples, following so shortly on that in Spain, seriously alarmed the powers responsible for the preservation of the peace in Europe. The position was complicated by the somewhat enigmatic attitude of Russia; for the Neapolitan Liberals, with many of whom Count Capo d' Istria, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, had been on friendly terms, proclaimed that they had the " moral support " of the tsar. This idea, above all, it was necessary for Austria to destroy once for all. The diplomatic negotiations are discussed in the article on the history of Europe (q.v.). Here it suffices to say that these issued in the congress of Troppau (October 1820) and the proclamation of the famous Troppau protocol affirming the right of collective/' Europe " to interfere to crush dangerous internal revolutions. Both France and Great Britain protested against the general principle laid down in this instrument; but neither of them approved of the Neapolitan revolution, and neither of them was opposed to an intervention in Naples, provided this were carried out, not on the ground of a supposed right of Europe to interfere, but by Austria for Austrian ends. By general consent King Ferdinand was invited to attend the adjourned congress, fixed to meet at Laibach in the spring of the following year. Under the new constitution, the permission of parliament was necessary before the king could leave Neapolitan territory; but this was weakly granted, after Ferdinand had sworn the most solemn oaths to maintain the constitution. He was scarcely beyond the frontiers, however, before he repudiated his engagements, as exacted by force. A cynicism so unblushing shocked even the seasoned diplomats of the congress, who would have preferred that the king should have made a decent show of yielding to force. The result was, however, that the powers authorized Austria to march an army into Naples to restore the autocratic monarchy. This decision was notified to the Neapolitan government by Russia, Prussia and Austria — Great Britain and France maintaining a strict neutrality. Meanwhile the regent, in spite of his declaration that he would lead the Neapolitan army against the invader, was secretly undermining the position of the government, and there were divisions of opinion in the ranks of the Liberals themselves. General Pepe Austrians was sent to t^le frontier at the head of 8000 men, but la Naples, was completely defeated by the Austrians at Rieti on the 7th of March. On the 23rd the Austrians entered Naples, followed soon afterwards by the king; every vestige of freedom was suppressed, the reactionary Medici ministry appointed, and the inevitable state trials instituted with the usual harvest of executions and imprisonment. Pepe saved himself by flight. (See FERDINAND IV., king of Naples.) Ferdinand died in 1825, and his son and successor, Francis I., an unbridled libertine, at once threw off the mask of Liberalism; the corruption of the administration under Medici assumed unheard-of proportions, and every office was openly sold. The Austrian occupation lasted until 1827, having cost the state 310,000,000 lire; but in the meanwhile the Swiss Guard had been established as a further protection for autocracy, and the revolutionary outbreak at Bosco on the Cilento was suppressed with the usual cruelty. (See FRANCIS I., king of the Two Sicilies.) Francis died in 1830 and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand II., who at first awoke hopes that the conditions of the country would be improved. He was not devoid of good qualities, and took an interest in the material welfare Wi of the country, but he was narrow-minded, ignorant and bigoted; he made the administration more efficient, and re- organized the army which became purged of Carbonarism, and such Carbonarist plots as there were in the 'thirties were not severely punished. Ferdinand was impatient of Austrian in- fluence, but on the death of his first wife, Cristina of Savoy, he married Maria Theresa of Austria, who encouraged him in his reactionary tendencies and brought him closer to Austria. An outbreak of cholera in 1837 led to disorders in Sicily, which, having assumed a political character, were repressed by Del Caretto with great severity. The government tended to become more and more autocratic and to rely wholly on the all-powerful police, the spies and the priests; and, although the king showed some independence in foreign affairs, his popularity waned; the desire for a constitution was by no means dead, and the survivors of the old Carbonari gathered round Carlo Poerio, while the Giovane Italia society (independent of Mazzini) , led by Benedetto Musolino, took as its motto " Unity, Liberty and Independence." But as yet the idea of unity made but little headway, for southern Italy was too widely separated by geographical conditions, history, tradition and custom from the rest of the peninsula, and the majority of the Liberals — themselves a minority of the population — merely aspired to a constitutional Neapolitan monarchy, possibly forming part of a confederation of Italian states. The attempt of the Giovane Italia to bring about a general revolution in 1843 only resulted in a few sporadic out- breaks easily crushed. The following year the Venetian brothers Bandiera, acting in concert with Mazzini, landed in Calabria, believing the whole country to be in a state '*• of revolt; they met with little local support and were au°mpi" quickly captured and shot, but their death aroused much sympathy, and the whole episode was highly significant as being the first attempt made by north Italians to promote revolution in the south. In 1847 a pamphlet by L. Settembrini, entitled " A Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies," appeared anonymously and created a deep impression as a most scathing indictment of the government; and at the same time the election of Pius IX., a pope who was believed to be a Liberal, caused widespread excitement throughout Italy. Conspiracy was now rife both in Naples and Sicily, but as yet there was no idea of deposing the king. Many persons were arrested, including Carlo Poerio, who, however, continued to direct the agitation. On the I2th of January 1848 a revolution under the leadership of Ruggiero Settimo broke out at Palermo to the cry of " in- dependence or the 1812 constitution," and by the end of February the whole island, with the exception of The Messina, was in the hands of the revolutionists. These ^ giciiy. events were followed by demonstrations at Naples; the king summoned a meeting of generals and members of his family on the 27th of January, and on the advice of Filangieri (q.v.), who said that the army was not to be relied upon, he dismissed the Pietracatella ministry and Del Caretto, and summoned the duke of Serracapriola to form another administra- tion. On the 28th he granted the constitution, and the Liberals Bozzelli and Carlo Poerio afterwards joined the cabinet. The NAPLES, KINGDOM OF The 15th of May. popular demand was now that Naples should assist the Lombards in their revolt against Austria, for a feeling of Italian solidarity Tlle was growing up. The ministry of Carlo Troya suc- constitu- ceeded to that of Serracapriola, and after the parlia- tion of mentary elections, in which many extreme Radicals *' were elected, Ferdinand declared war against Austria (April 7th, 1848). After considerable delay a Neapolitan army under General Pepe marched towards Lombardy in May, while the fleet sailed for Venice. But a dispute between the king and the parliament concerning the form of the royal oath having arisen, a group of demagogues with criminal folly provoked disturbances and erected barricades (May I4th). The king refused to open parliament unless the barricades were removed, and while the moderate elements attempted to bring about conciliation, the ministry acted with great weakness. A few shots were fired — it is not known who fired first — on the 1 5th, the Swiss regiments stormed the barricades and street fighting lasted all day. By the evening the Swiss and the royalists were masters of the situation. A new ministry under Prince Cariati was appointed. Parliament was dissolved, the National Guard disbanded and the army recalled from the Po. Fresh elections were held and the new parliament met on the isth of July, but it had the king, the army and the mob against it, and anti-constitutionalist demonstrations became frequent. After a brief session it was prorogued to the ist of February 1849, and when it met on that date a deadlock between king and parliament occurred. The Austrian victories in Lom- bardy had strengthened the court party, or Camarilla as it was called, and on the I3th of March the assembly was again dissolved, and never summoned again. The king was at Gaeta, whither the grand-duke of Tuscany and Pius IX. had also repaired to escape from their rebellious subjects, and the city became the headquarters of Italian reaction. In Sicily the revolutionists were purely insular in their aspira- tions and bitterly hostile to the Neapolitans, and the attempts at conciliation, although favoured by Lord Minto, failed, for Naples wanted one constitution and one parliament, whereas Sicily wanted two, with only the king in common. The Sicilian assembly met in March 1848, and Settimo in his inaugural speech declared that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign, that the throne was vacant and that Sicily united her destinies to those of Italy. Settimo was elected president of the government, but the administration was lacking in states- manship, the treasury was empty, and nothing was done to raise an army. After the Austrian victories King Ferdinand sent a Neapolitan army of 20,000 men under Filangieri to subjugate the island. The troops landed at Messina, of which the citadel had been held by the royalists throughout, and after three days' desperate fighting the city itself was captured and sacked. The British and French admirals imposed a truce with a view to conciliation, and the king offered the Sicilians the Neapolitan constitution and a separate parliament, which they refused. Sicilian troops were now levied throughout the island and the chief command given to the Pole Mieroslawski, but it was too late. Filangieri marched forward taking town after town, and committing many atrocities. In April he reached Palermo while the fleet appeared in the bay; tumults having broken out within the city, the government surrendered on terms which granted amnesty for all except Settimo and forty-two others. For a few months after the dissolution of the Neapolitan parliament the government abstained from persecution, but with the crushing of the Sicilian revolution its hands Neapolitan were ^ree; an(* wnen tne commission oh the affair of prisons. the 1 5th of May had completed its labours the state trials and arrests began. The arrest of S. Faucitano for a demonstration at Gaeta led to the discovery of the UnilA Itoliana society, whose object was to free Italy from domestic tyranny and foreign domination. Thousands of respectable citizens were thrown into prison, such as L. Settembrini, Carlo Poerio and Silvio Spaventa. The trials were conducted with the most scandalous contempt of justice, and moral and physical torture was applied to extort confessions. The abominable con- Skily. ditions of the prisons in which the best men of the kingdom were immured, linked to the vilest common criminals, was made known to the world by the famous letters of W. E. Gladstone, which branded the Bourbon regime as " the negation of God erected into a system of government." The merest suspicion of unorthodox opinions, the possession of foreign newspapers, the wearing of a beard or an anonymous denunciation, sufficed for the arrest and condemnation of a man to years of imprisonment, while the attendibili, or persons under police surveillance liable to imprisonment without trial at any moment, numbered 50,000. The remonstrances of Great Britain and France met with no success. Ferdinand strongly resented foreign interference, and even rejected the Austrian proposal for a league of the Italian despots for mutual defence against external attacks and internal disorder. In 1856 his life was unsuccessfully attempted by a soldier, and the same year Baron Bentivegna organized a revolt near Palermo, which was quickly suppressed. In 1857 Carlo Pisacane, an ex-Neapolitan officer who had taken part in the defence of Rome, fitted out an expedition, with att*mj>t. * Mazzini's approval, from Genoa, and landed at Sapri in Calabria, where he hoped to raise the flag of revolution; but the local police assisted by the peasantry attacked the band, killing many, including Pisacane himself, and capturing most of the rest. The following year, at the instance of Great Britain and France, Ferdinand commuted the sentences of some of the political prisoners to exile. (See FERDINAND II., king of the Two Sicilies). In May 1859 Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who came to the throne just as the Franco-Sardinian victories in Lombardy were sounding the death-knell Praaclsn of Austrian predominance and domestic despotism in Italy (see ITALY: History). But although there was much activity and plotting among the Liberals, there was as yet no revolution. Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, wrote to the new king proposing an alliance for the division of Italy, but Francis refused. In June part of the Swiss Guard mutinied because the Bernese government not having renewed the conven- tion with Naples the troops were deprived of their cantonal flag. The mutinous regiments, however, were surrounded by loyal troops and shot down; and this affair resulted in the disbanding of the whole force — the last support of the autocracy. Political amnesties were now decreed, and in September 1859 Filangieri was made prime minister. The latter favoured the Sardinian alliance and the granting of the constitution, and so did the king's uncle, Leopold, count of Syracuse. But Francis rejected both proposals and Filangieri resigned and was succeeded by A. Statella. In April 1860 Victor Emmanuel again proposed an alliance whereby Naples, in return for help in expelling the Austrians from Venetia, was to receive the Marche, while Sardinia would annex all the rest of Italy except Rome. But Francis again refused, and in fact was negotiating with Austria and the pope for a simultaneous invasion of Modena, Lombardy and Romagna. In the meantime, however, events in Sicily were reaching a crisis destined to subvert the Bourbon dynasty. The Sicilians, unlike the Neapolitans, were thoroughly alienated from the Bourbons, whom they detested, and after the peace of Villafranca (July 1859) Mazzini's emissaries, Thousand. F. Crispi and R. Pilo, had been trying to organize a rising in favour of Italian unity; and although they merely succeeded in raising a few squadre, or armed bands, in the mountainous districts, they persuaded Garibaldi (q.v.), without the magic of whose personal prestige they knew nothing im- portant could be achieved, that the revolution which he knew to be imminent had broken out. The authorities at Palermo, learning of a projected rising, attacked the convent of La Gangia, the headquarters of the rebels, and killed most of the inmates; but in the meanwhile Garibaldi, whose hesitation had been overcome, embarked on the 5th of May 1860, at Quarto, near Genoa, with 1000 picked followers on board two steamers, and sailed for Sicily. On the nth the expedition reached Marsala and landed without opposition. Garibaldi was somewhat coldly received by the astonished population; but he set forth at once for NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 189 Salemi, whence he issued a proclamation assuming the dictator- ship of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel, with Crispi as secretary of state. He continued his march towards Palermo, where the bulk of the 30,000 Bourbon troops were concentrated, gathering numerous followers on the way. On the isth he attacked and defeated 3000 of the enemy under General Landi at Calatafimi; the news of this brilliant victory revived the revolutionary agitation throughout the island, and Garibaldi was joined by Pilo and his bands. By a cleverly devised ruse he avoided General Colonna's force, which expected him on the „ j Monreale road, and entering Palermo from Misilmeri received an enthusiastic welcome. The Bourbonists, although they bombarded the city from the citadel and the warships in the harbour, gradually lost ground, and after three days' street fighting their commander, General Lanza, not knowing that the Garibaldians had scarcely a cartridge left, asked for arid obtained a twenty-four hours' armistice (May 3oth). Garibaldi went on board the British flagship to confer with the Neapolitan generals Letizia and Chretien; Letizia's proposal that the municipality should make a humble petition to the king was indignantly rejected by Garibaldi, who merely agreed to the extension of the armistice until next day. Then he informed the citizens by means of a proclamation of what he had done, and declared that, knowing them to be ready to die in the ruins of their city, he would renew hostilities on the expiration of the armistice. Although unarmed, the people rallied to him as one man, and Lanza became so alarmed that he asked for an unconditional extension of the armistice, which 'Garibaldi granted. The dictator now had time to collect ammunition, and the Neapolitan government having given Lanza full powers to treat with him, 15,000 Bourbon troops embarked for Naples on the yth of June, leaving the revolutionists masters of the situation. The Sardinian Admiral Persano's salute of nineteen guns on the occasion of Garibaldi's official call constituted a practical recogni- tion of his dictatorship by the Sardinian (Piedmontese) govern- ment. In July further reinforcements of volunteers under Cosenz and Medici, assisted by Cavour, arrived at Palermo with a good supply of arms furnished by subscription in northern Italy. Gari- baldi's forces were now raised to 12,000 men, besides the Sicilian squadre. Cavour's attempt to bring about the annexation of Sicily to Sardinia failed, for Garibaldi wished to use the island as a basis for an invasion of the mainland. Most of the island had now been evacuated by the Bourbonists, but Messina and a few other points still held out, and when the Garibaldians advanced eastward they encountered a force of 4000 of the enemy under Colonel Bosco at Milazzo; on the 2Oth of July a desperate battle took place resulting in a hard-won Garibaldian victory. The Neapolitan government then decided on the evacuation of the whole of Sicily except the citadel of Messina, which did not surrender until the following year. The news of Garibaldi's astonishing successes entirely changed the situation in the capital, and on the 25th of June 1860 the The king, after consulting the ministers and the royal Neapolitan family, granted a constitution, and appointed A. coastitu- Spinelli prime minister. Disorders having taken place between Liberals and reactionaries, Liberio Romano was made minister of police in the place of Aiossa. Sicily being lost, the king directed all his efforts to save Naples; he appealed to Great Britain and France to prevent Garibaldi from crossing the Straits of Messina, and only just failed (for this episode see under LACAITA, G.). Victor Emmanuel himself wrote to Garibaldi urging him to abstain from an attack on Naples, but Garibaldi refused to obey, and on the ipth of August he crossed with 4500 men and took Reggio by storm. He was soon joined by the rest of his troops, 15,000 in all, and although the Neapolitan government had 30,000 men in Calabria alone, the army collapsed before Garibaldi's advance, and the on7fte/Mosc J32 ft- high, 9 ft. across the mouth and weighing 37 tons. The great Buddha is often spoken of as the most remarkable of the Nara relics; but restorations have so marred it that it can no longer be compared with many smaller examples of con- temporaneous and subsequent sculpture. More worthy of close attention are two effigies of Brahma and Indra preserved among the relics of Kobuku-ji, which, with Kasuga-no-Miya, Ni-gwatsu- do and Todai-ji, constitute the chief religious edifices. These figures, sculptured in wood, have suffered much from the ravages of time, but nothing could destroy the grandeur of their propor- tions or the majesty and dignity of their pose. Several other NARAINGANJ— NARBOROUGH 237 works of scarcely inferior excellence may be seen among the relics, and at the shrine of Kasuga is performed a religious dance called Kagura, in which the costumes and gestures of the dancers are doubtless t he same as those of twelve centuries back. Kasuga- no-Miya was founded in 767, and its chapels with their rough red- painted log-work afford fine examples of primitive Japanese architecture. In the temple-park are herds of tame deer; and little images of deer and trinkets from deer's horn are the favourite charms purchased by the pilgrims. Within the enclosure stands a curious old trunk of seven plants entwined, including a camellia, cherry and wistaria. Of the great Buddhist temple Kobuku-ji, founded in 710, and burnt for the third time in 1717, there remains little save two lofty pagodas. A railway now gives access to the town, but every effort is made to preserve all the ancient features of Nara. A museum has been formed, where many antique objects of great interest are displayed, as well as works from the hands of comparatively modern artists. Nara in the days of its prosperity is said to have had a population of a quarter of a million. NARAINGANJ, or NARAYANGANJ, a town of India, in the Dacca district of eastern Bengal and Assam, situated near the junction of two rivers with the Meghna, 10 m. by rail S. of Decca city. Pop. (1901) 24,472. As the port of Dacca, having steamer communication with both Calcutta and Chittagong, it has become the chief entrepot for the jute trade of eastern Bengal. There are 73 jute-presses, employing 6000 hands, and the annual export of jute exceeds 300,000 tons. It also ranks as the model municipality of Bengal. NARBONNE, a city of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aude, situated in a vine-growing plain S m. from the Mediterranean, on the railway from Toulouse to Cette, 37 m. E. of Carcassonne. Pop. (1906) 23,289. The Robine canal, a branch of the Canal du Midi, divides Narbonne into two distinct portions, the bdurg and the cite. The latter is one of the oldest and most interesting of French towns. The former cathedral (St Just), which consists only of a choir 130 ft. high and transept, was begun in 1272, and the transept was still un- finished at the end of the isth century. The towers (194 ft. high) at each extremity of the transept were built about 1480. Some additions towards the west were made early in the i8th century. An unusual effect is produced by a double row of crenellation taking the place of balustrades on the roof of the choir chapels and connecting the pillars of the flying buttresses. Among the sepulchral monuments, which are the chief feature of the interior, may be noticed the alabaster tomb of Cardinal Guillaume Briconnet, minister of state under Charles VIII. The chapter- house, of the 1 5th century, has a vaulted roof supported on four free pillars. The treasury preserves many interesting relics. The apse of the cathedral was formerly joined to the fortifications of the archiepiscopal palace, and the two buildings are still con- nected by a mutilated cloister of the i4th and isth centuries. On the front of the palace are three square towers of unequal height. Between the Tour des Telegraphes (1318), crenellated and turreted at the corners, and that of St Martial (1374), machi- colated and pierced by Gothic openings, a new facade was erected in the style of the I3th century after the plans of Viollet-le-Duc. This portion of the building now serves as h6tel de ville, and its upper stories are occupied by the Narbonne museum of art and archaeology, which includes a fine collection of pottery. The palace garden also contains many fragments of Roman work once built into the now dismantled fortifications; and the Musee Lapidaire in the Lamourguier buildings (formerly the church of a Benedictine convent) has a collection of Roman remains derived from the same source. The church of St Paul, though partly Romanesque, is in the main striking, and for the south of France a rare example of a building of the first half of the i3th century in the Gothic style of the north. It possesses some ancient Christian sarcophagi and fine Renaissance wood carving. Narbonne has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce, a communal college for boys and a school of commerce and industry. It has a good trade in wine and spirituous liquors, and is famous for its honey. The industries include cooperage, sulphur-refining, brandy-distilling and the manufacture of bricks and tiles and verdigris. Long before the Roman invasion of Gaul Narbonne was a flourish- ing city, being capital of the Volcae Tectosages. It was there that the Romans in 118 B.C. founded their first colony in Gaul, which bore the name of Narbo Martins; they constructed great works to protect the city from inundation and to improve its port, situated on a lake now filled up but at that time communicating with the sea. Capital of Gallia Narbonensis, the seat of a proconsul and a station for the Roman fleet, Narbo Martius became the rival of Massilia. But in A.D. 150 it suffered greatly from a conflagration, and the division of Gallia Narbonensis into two provinces lessened its im- portance as a capital. Alans, Sueyi, Vandals, each held the city for a brief space, and at last, in 413, it was occupied by the Visigoths, whose capital it afterwards became. In 719, after a siege of two years, it was captured by the Saracens, and by them its fortifica- tions were restored and extended. Charles Martel, after the battle of Poitiers, and Pippin the Short, in 752, were both repulsed from its walls; but on a new attempt, after an investment of seven years, and by aid of a traitor, the Franks managed again to force their way into Narbonne. Charlemagne made the city the capital of the duchy of Gothia, and divided it into three lordships — one for the bishop, another for a Prankish lord, and the third for the Jews, who, occupying their own quarter, possessed schools, synagogues and a university famous in the middle ages. The viscounts who succeeded the Prankish lord sometimes acknowledged the authority of the counts of Toulouse, sometimes that of the counts of Barcelona. In the I3th century the crusade against the Albigenses spared the city, but the archbishopric was seized by the pope's legate, Arnaud Amaury, who took the title of viscount of Narbonne. Simon de Montfort, however, deprived him of this dignity, receiving from Philip Augustus the duchy of Narbonne along with the county of Toulouse. By his expulsion of the Jews Philip the Fair hastened the decay of the city ; and about the same period the Aude, which had formerly been diverted by the Romans, ceased to flow towards Narbonne and the harbour was silted up, to the further disadvantage of the place. In 1642 Henri Marquis de Cinq-Mars was arrested at Narbonne for conspiring against Richelieu. United to the French crown in 1507, Narbonne was enclosed by a new line of walls under Francis I., but having ceased to be a garrison town it had the last portions of its ramparts demolished in 1870. The archbishopric was founded about the middle of the 3rd century, its first holder being Sergius Paulus; it was suppressed in 1790. NARBONNE-LARA, LOUIS MARIE JACQUES AMALRIC, COMTE DE (1755-1813), French soldier and diplomatist, was born at Colorno, in the duchy of Parma, on the 24th of August 1755. He was the son of one of the ladies-in-waiting of Elizabeth, duchess of Parma, and his father was either a Spanish nobleman or — as has been alleged — Louis XV. himself. He was brought up at Versailles with the princesses of France, and was made colonel at the age of twenty-five. He became marechal-de- camp in 1791, and, through the influence of Madame de Stael, was appointed minister of war. But he showed incapacity in this post, gave in his resignation, and joined the Army of the North. Incurring suspicion as a Feuittant and also by his policy at the war office, he emigrated after the loth of August 1792, visited England, Switzerland and Germany, and returned to France in 1801. In 1809 he re-entered the army as general of division, and was subsequently minister plenipotentiary at Munich and aide de camp to Napoleon. In 1813 he was appointed French ambassador at Vienna, where he was engaged in an un- equal diplomatic duel with Metternich (q.v.) during the fateful months that witnessed the defection of Austria from the cause of Napoleon to that of the Allies. He died at Torgau, in Saxony, on the 1 7th of November 1813. See A. F. Villemain, Souvenirs contemporains (Paris, 1854). NARBOROUGH, SIR JOHN (d. 1688), English naval com- mander, was descended from an old Norfolk family. He received his commission in 1664, and in 1666 was promoted lieutenant for gallantry in the action with the Dutch fleet off the Downs in June of that year. After the peace he was chosen to conduct a voyage of exploration in the South Seas. He set sail from Deptford on the a6th of November 1669, and entered the Straits of Magellan in October of the following year, but returned home in June 1671 without accomplishing his original purpose. A narrative of the expedition was published at London in 1694 under the title An Account of several late Voyages and Discoveries to the South and North. During the second Dutch War Nar- borough was second captain of the lord high-admiral's ship the NARCISSUS " Prince," and conducted himself with such conspicuous valour at the battle of Solebay (Southwold Bay) in May 1672 that he won special approbation, and shortly afterwards was made rear- admiral and knighted. In 1675 he was sent to suppress the Tripoline piracies, and by the bold expedient of despatching gun-boats into the harbour of Tripoli at midnight and burning the ships he induced the dey to agree to a treaty. Shortly after his return he undertook a similar expedition against the Algerines. In 1680 he was appointed commissioner of the navy, an office he held till his death in 1688. He was buried at Knowlton church, Kent, where a monument has been erected to his memory. See Charnock, Biog. Nav. i. ; Hist. MSS. Comm. I2th Rept. NARCISSUS, in Greek mythology, son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph Leiriope, distinguished for his beauty. The seer Teiresias told his mother that he would have a long life, provided he never looked upon his own features. His rejection of the love of the nymph Echo (q.v.) drew upon him the vengeance of the gods. Having fallen in love with his own reflection in the waters of a spring, he pined away (or killed him- self) and the flower that bears his name sprang up on the spot where he died. According to Pausanias, Narcissus, to console himself for the death of a favourite twin-sister, his exact counter- part, sat gazing into the spring to recall her features by his own. Narcissus, representing the early spring-flower, which for a brief space beholds itself mirrored in the water ?nd then fades, is one of the many youths whose premature death is recorded in Greek mythology (cf. Adonis, Linus, Hyacinthus); the flower itself was regarded as a symbol of such death. It was the last flower gathered by Persephone before she was carried off by Hades, and was sacred to Demeter and Core (the cult name of Perse- phone), the great goddesses of the underworld. From its associations Wieseler takes Narcissus himself to be a spirit of the underworld, of death and rest. It is possible that the story may have originated in the superstition (alluded to by Arte- midorus, Oneirocritica, ii. 7) that it was an omen of death to dream of seeing one's reflection in water. See Ovid, Metam. iii. 341-510; Pausanias ix. 31; Conon, Narrationes, 24; F. Wieseler, Narkissos (1856); Greve in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1900), i. 293- NARCISSUS, a genus of bulbous plants belonging to the family Amaryllidaceae, natives of central Europe and the Mediterranean region; one species N. Tazetta, extends through Asia to Japan. From these, or rather from some of these, by cultivation and hybridization, have arisen the very numerous modern varieties. The plants have long narrow leaves spring- ing from the bulb and a central scape bearing one or more generally large, white or yellow, drooping or inclined flowers, which are enveloped before opening in a membranous spathe. The flowers are regular, with a perianth springing from above the ovary, tubular below, with spreading segments and a central corona; the six stamens are inserted within the tube. The most interesting feature botanically is the " corona " or " cup," which springs from the FIG. i. — Flowers of Narcissus base of the flower-segments. (Narcissus Tazetta) bursting from This gives the special char- the sheathing bract or spathe, 6. acter to the flowerj and the members of the genus are classified according to the length of this organ as compared with that of the segments. The most probable supposition is that the cup is simply an excrescence or " enation " from the mouth of the flower-tube, and is connected with the fertilization of the flowers by insect agency. There are five well-marked sections. 1. The hoop-petticoat narcissi, sometimes separated as the genu& Corbularia, are not more than from 3 to 6 in. in height, and have grassy foliage and yellow or white flowers. These have the coronet in the centre of the flower very large in proportion to the other parts, and much expanded, like the old hooped petticoats. They are now all regarded as varieties or forms of the common hoop-petticoat, N. Bulbocodium, which has comparatively large bright yellow flowers; N. tenuifolius is smaller and somewhat paler and with slender erect leaves; N. citrinus is pale lemon yellow and larger i while N. monophyttus is white. The small bulbs should be taken up in summer and replanted in autumn and early winter, according to the state of the season. They bloom about March or April in the open air. The soil should be free and open, so that water may pass off readily. 2. A second group is that of the Pseudonarcissi, constituting the genus Ajax of some botanists, of which the daffodil, N. Pseudo- narcissus is the type. The daffodil (fig. 2)Js common in woods and FlG. 2. — Daffodil — (Narcissus Pseudonarcissus) — } nat. size. I, Flower cut open; 2, pistil; 3, horizontal plan of flower. thickets in most parts of the north of Europe, but is rare in Scotland. Its leaves are five or six in number, are about I ft. in length and I in. in breadth, and have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about 1 8 in. long and the spathe single-flowered. The flowers are large, yellow, scented and a little drooping, with a corolla deeply cleft into six lobes and a bell-shaped corona which is crisped at the margin; they appear in March or April. In this species the corona is also very large and prominent, but is more elongated and trumpet- shaped, while the other members are regarded as subspecies or varieties of this. Of this group the most striking one perhaps is N. bicolor, which has the perianth almost white and the corona deep yellow; it yields a number of varieties, some of the best known being Empress, Horsfieldi, Grandee, Ellen Willmott, Victoria, Weardale Perfection, &c. N. moschatus, a native of the Pyrenees and the Spanish peninsula, is a cream-coloured subspecies of great beauty with several forms. N. cyclamineus is a pretty dwarf sub- species, native of Portugal, with narrow linear leaves and drooping flowers with reflexed lemon-yellow segments and an orange-yellow corona N. major is a robust form with leaves J^f in. broad and bright lemon-yellow flowers 2-2 J in. long ; maximus is a closely-related but still finer form ; obvallaris (the Tenby daffodil) is an early form with NARCOTICS 239 uniformly yellow flowers. N. minor and minimus are miniature repetitions of the daffodil. All these grow well in good garden soil, and blossom from March onwards, coming in very early in genial seasons. 3. Another group, the mock narcissi or star daffodils, with coronets of medium size, includes the fine and numerous varieties of N. incomparabilis, one of which, with large, double flowers, is known as butter-and-eggs ; N. odorus, known as the campernelle jonquil, has two to four uniform bright yellow flowers, and is considered a hybrid between N. Jonquilla and N. Pseudonarcissus. A form with sweet-scented double flowers is known as Queen Ann's jonquil; N.juncifolius, a graceful little plant from Spain, Portugal and south France, has one to four small bright yellow flowers on each scape. The hardier forms of this set thrive in the open border, but the smaller sorts, like Queen Ann's ionqu'l. are better taken up in autumn and replanted in February; they bloom freely about April or May. N. triandrus — Ganymede's Cup — is a pretty little species with white flowers about I in. long; in several of its varieties the flowers are a pale or deeper yellow; they make attractive pot plants. 4. The polyanthus or bunch narcissi form another well-marked group, whose peculiarity of producing many flowers on the stem is indicated by the name. In these the corona is small and shallow as compared with the perianth. Some of the hardier forms, as N. Tazetta itself, the type of the group, succeed in the open borders in light well-drained soil, but the bulbs should be deeply planted, not less than 6 or 8 in. below the surface, to escape risk of injury from frost. Many varieties of this form of narcissus, such as Grand Mpnarque, Paper white, Soleil d'or, are grown. They admit of being forced into early bloom, like the hyacinth and tulip. They vary with a white, creamy or yellow perianth, and a yellow, lemon, primrose or white cup or coronet; and, being richly fragrant, they are general favourites amongst spring flowers. Many tons of these flowers are exported from the Scilly Isles to the London markets in spring. The " Chinese sacred lily " or " joss flower " is a form of N. Tazetta. The jonquil, N. Jonquilla, with yellow flowers, a native of south Europe and Algeria, of which there are single and double flowered varieties, is also grown in pots for early flowering, but does well outside in a warm border. 5. There remains another little group, the poet's or pheasant's- eye narcissi (N. poeticus), in which the perianth is large, spreading and conspicuous, and the corona very small and shallow. These pheasant's-eye narcissi, of which there are several well-marked varieties, as radiiflorus, poetarum, recurvus, &c., blossom in succession during April and May, and all do well in the open borders as perma- nent hardy bulbs. N. biflorus, the primrose peerless, a two-flowered whitish yellow-cupped species, equally hardy and easy of culture, is a natural hybrid between N. poeticus and Tazetta. N. gracilis, a yellow-flowered species, has also been regarded as a hybrid between N. Tazetta and N.juncifolius, and blooms later. Of late years some remarkably fine hybrids have been raised between the various distinct groups of narcissi, and the prices asked for the bulbs in many cases are exceedingly high. One of the most distinct groups is that known under the name of " Poetaz " — a combination of poeticus and Tazetta. The best forms of poeticus ornatus have been crossed with the bunch-flowered Tazettas, and have resulted in producing varieties with large trusses of exquisite flowers more or less resembling the ornatus parents, and varying in colour from the purest white to yellow, the rim of the corona being in most cases conspicuously and charmingly coloured with red or crimson. This is an excellent group for cutting purposes, but it will take a few more years to make the varieties common. For an account of the history and culture of the narcissus see F. W. Burbidge, The Narcissus (1875); a more recent scientific treatment of the genus Will be found in J. G. Baker's Handbook of Amaryllideae (1888); see also Nicholson, Dictionary of Gardening (1886) ; and J. Weathers, Practical Guide to Garden Plants (1901). NARCOTICS (Gr. vapKuriKos, making numb), a general term for substances having the physiological action, in a healthy animal, of producing lethargy or stupor, which may pass into a state of profound coma or unconsciousness along with complete paralysis, terminating in death. Certain substances of this class are used in medicine for the relief of pain, and are then called anodynes, whilst another group produce profound sleep, and are consequently known as hypnotics. In one sense, anaesthetics, such as chloroform and ether, may be held to be narcotics, but, as they are usually volatile substances causing unconsciousness for a comparatively short time, they are conveniently separated from the true narcotics, the effects of which are much more lasting. These distinctions are to a great extent artificial, as it is evident that a substance capable of producing partial insensibility to pain, or sleep, will inevitably in larger doses cause profound coma ending in death. Hence we find the same substances sometimes classed as anodynes and at other times as hypnotics. For example, small doses of opium, or of one or other of its preparations, relieve pain, whilst larger doses act as hypnotics, causing deep sleep passing into coma. Cannabis Indica, belladonna and hyoscyamus, are also anodyne in their action. The chief narcotics are mentioned below. Opium is the inspissated juice of the Papaver somniferum, con- taining 7-5 to 10-5% of anhydrous morphine. Besides morphine some of the other alkaloids contained in it are of a narcotic nature, notably papaverine, narceine, meconine, cryptopine and narcotine, but the principal anodyne and narcotic effects are due to the mor- phine alkaloid. Though seasoned opium takers may take 20 to 30 grs. without noticeable effects, I to 3 grs. produces marked symptoms in the western races. Idiosyncrasy is marked in regard to the amount of opium a person can safely take. The medicinal dose is up to 2 grs., and the smallest dose that has been known to cause death in an adult is $ gr. The narcotic properties of Morphine vary as to whether it is taken by the stomach or injected under the skin; 2 grs. by the stomach is dangerous, and a safe medicinal dose by the skin is | to J gr. The smallest dose that has produced death in an adult was i gr. given hypodermically. The motor centres of the brain and spinal cord are first stimulated by opium and morphine and later depressed; death in fatal cases being from paralysis of the respiratory centre of the medulla. For the treatment of poisoning see under OPIUM. Cannabis indica or Indian Hemp (see HEMP). — The part used in medicine is the non-fertilized female spikes of the Cannabis saliva. The active constituent is the resin containing cannabin with the active principle cannabinol, the alkaloids cannabinene and tetano- canabine. Cannabis indica is sold in the East under various names. A confection of the drug made in Arabia is called hashisch. Churrus is the resin scraped off the leaves, and the dried leaf is called bang, gunga or ganga being the name given to the dried flowering tops sold for smoking. The medicinal dose is J to I gr. of the extract, 2 to 3 grs. is a poisonous dose, but there is no recorded fatal case in man. In Eastern countries the smoking of Cannabis indica produces a form of mania. The effects of smaller doses are intoxication of a pleasant character, exaltation, hallucinations and delirium, later dilatation of the pupils, drowsiness, sleep and coma. Indian hemp is an uncertain anodyne and hypnotic. When large quantities have been taken an emetic should be given or the stomach pump used, and endeavour to allay excitement until the effects have passed off. Belladonna and Atr opine. — The leaves of the Atropa Belladonna or deadly nightshade of which the active principle is atropine principally used as a sulphate. A small dose of belladonna or atro- pine causes dryness of the throat and mouth, dilatation of the pupils, dimness of vision except for distant objects and often double vision. The pulse becomes quick, rising, in an adult, from 80 to 120 or 160 beats per minute; and there is often a bright red flush over the skin. The intellectual powers are at first acute and strong, but they soon become confused. There is giddiness, confusion of thought, excite- ment, a peculiar talkative wakeful restiveness, in which the person shows that his mind is occupied by a train of fancies or is haunted by visions and spectres. Often there is violent delirium before sleep comes on. The sleep after a large dose deepens into stupor, with great muscular prostration or paralysis. During all the time the pupils are widely dilated. Death occurs from failure both of the heart's action and of respiration. The minimum lethal dose is not known, but 80 grs. of the root have caused death ; ^ to ^ gr. hypodermically have caused dangerous symptoms and J g_r. would almost certainly be fatal. For the medicinal preparations and treatment of poisoning see BELLADONNA. Stramonium. — The part of the plant used is the leaves and seed of the Datura Stramonium or thorn apple, the alkaloidal constituent being daturine, a variable mixture of hypscine and atrcpine. The physiological action is almost identical with belladonna. Poisoning is usually due to children eating the seeds; the lethal dose is un- known. The symptoms produced are divided into three stages — delirium, sleep and deep coma. In case of slight poisoning a rash is one of the toxic symptoms. The treatment of poisoning is to give emetics, wash out the stomach and give stimulants and pilocarpine subcutaneously, also to apply warmth and to use artificial respiration if necessary. Hyoscyamus, the leaves of the Hyoscyamus niger or henbane (g.f.) . The active principle is hyoscyamine. ' The physiological action is almost similar to belladonna, with excitement and cardiac stimu- lation and afterwards depression and stupor, but the action of hyos- cyamus on the heart is more powerful. In large doses it is a strong cerebral depressant, and produces dilatation of the pupil ; £, gr. of hyoscamine produces marked effects, sleepiness and dryness of the mouth ; J gr. by subcutaneous injection has produced fatal results. The treatment of hyoscyamus poisoning is similar to that of stra- monium. Hops (the Humulus Lupulus), containing the active principle lupulme, and Lactucarium, the juice of the Lactuca virosa (lettuce), containing an alkaloid lactucine, are very feeble narcotics, causing heaviness and sleep if taken in large doses. Chloral Hydrate is a pure hypnotic which in larger doses is a powerful narcotic, producing prolonged sleep with depression of the cardiac and motor centres. It is an intrinsic cardiac poison, the 240 NARDI— NARSES heart being arrested in diastole, with coincident respiratory failure. Chloral hydrate is not uniform in its action, some people manifesting great susceptibility to the drug. It is safe in small doses of 10 to 20 grs. It is difficult to say what is a lethal dose. Cases are recorded of recovery after 336 grs. taken with an equal amount of potassium bromide and even after a dose of 595 grs., but in susceptible persons 10 to 15 grs. have produced toxic symptoms and death has occurred after doses of from 30 to 45 grs. If seen early, the treatment is an emetic, but if the poison should have been already absorbed, stimu- lants, hot coffee, strychnine or digitalin hypodermically, with perhaps artificial respiration, may be required. Alcohol in large quantities is a strong narcotic, producing the typical stages of preliminary excitement followed by drowsiness and profound coma, during which death may occur. The treatment is washing out the stomach to prevent the absorption of the poison and the use of strychnine hypodermically. NARDI, JACOPO (b. 1476), Florentine historian, occupied various positions in the service of the Florentine republic after the expulsion of the Medici in 1494, and even on their return in 1512 he continued in the public service. In 1527 he joined in the movement for the expulsion of the family and was instrumental in defeating the Medicean troops under Cardinal Passerini, who were attacking the Palazzo della. Signoria. When the Medici again definitely became masters of Florence in 1530, Nardi was exiled from the city and his property confiscated. He spent the rest of his days in various parts of Italy, chiefly in Venice, and wrote a statement of the claims of the Florentine exiles against the Medici, addressed to the emperor Charles V. The exact date of his death is unknown. His chief work is his Istorie della Cilia di Firenze, covering the period from 1498 to 1538, in part based on Biagio Buonaccorsi's Diario. L. Arbib's edition of Nardi's history (Florence, 1842) contains a biography of the author, and so does that of Agenore Gelli (Florence, 1888). NARES, SIR GEORGE STRONG (1831- ), English Arctic explorer, son of a captain in the navy, was educated at the Royal Naval College at New Cross, and entered the navy in 1846. After being employed for some time on the Australian station, in 1852 he became mate of the " Resolute " in the Arctic expedition which was sent out in that year. Serving in the Crimea upon his return, he was appointed lieutenant in charge of the naval cadets on the inauguration of the " Britannia " training ship, and was then employed in surveying work on the N.E. coast of Australia and in the Mediterranean, attaining the rank of captain in 1869. While in command of the " Challenger " (1872-1874), in the famous voyage of deep-sea exploration round the world, he was ordered home to take command of the Arctic expedition which set sail in the spring of 1875 in the ships " Alert " and " Discovery." He published a narrative of the voyage on his return, and for his services was made K.C.B. (1876). Two years later he was sent in command of the " Alert " to survey Magellan Strait. From 1879 to 1896 he was attached to the Harbour Department of the Board of Trade. He retired from active service in 1886, and became a vice-admiral in 1892. (See POLAR REGIONS.) NARGILE or NARGILEH, the Persian and Turkish name for a " hookah," a tobacco pipe with a long flexible tube for stem passing through a vessel containing water, often perfumed. This bowl was originally made of a coco-nut (Persian nargil), whence the name, but now glass, metal or porcelain, are also used. NARNI (anc. Umbrian Nequinum, Rom. Narnia), a town and episcopal see of the province of Perugia, Italy, 65 m. N. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1901) 5200 (town), 12,773 (commune). It is picturesquely situated on a lofty rock (787 ft. above sea-level), 480 ft. above the Nera valley, at the point where the river traverses a narrow ravine, and commands a fine view. The cathedral and the portico of S. Maria della Pensola are buildings of the nth century with flat arches; the former has some good Renaissance sculptures. There are other interesting 'churches; S. Francesco has a good doorway of the i4th century. In the town hall is a " Coronation of the Virgin " by D. Ghirlandaio. The town also contains some picturesque Gothic houses and palaces. Near the station, below the town, are factories of india-rubber and calcium carbide. The Umbrian Nequinum was taken by the Romans after a long siege in 299 B.C., and a colony planted there against the Umbrians, taking its name from the river. It was among the twelve colonies that were punished for refusing help to Rome in 209 B.C. It was considered a suitable point to oppose a threatened march of Has- drubal on Rome. It stood on the Via Flaminia, the great bridge of which over the river lies below the town. The original main road ran to Nuceria by Mevania; a branch by Interamna and Spoletium joined it at Forum Flaminii. According to some authors, the emperor Nerva was born at Narnia. The town is mentioned in the history of the Gothic wars. Procopius (B.C. i. 17) describes the site of the town, the river and the bridge — the latter as built by Augustus, and as having the highest arches that he knew. In the middle ages Narni was under the papal power. It was the birthplace of the well-known cpndottiere Erasmo Gattamelata. See G. Eroli, Miscellanea Storica Narnese (2 vols., Narni, 1858- 1862), and other works by the same author. NARRAGANSETT, a township of Washington county, Rhode Island, U.S.A. on the W. shore of Narragansett Bay, about 25m. S. of Providence and about 8 m. W.S.W. of Newport. Pop. (1890) 1408; (1900) 1523; (1905) 1469; (1910) 1250. Area about 15 sq. m. It is connected at Kingston Station (about 9 m. N.W.) by the Narragansett Pier railway with the shore line of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway; an electric line connects with Providence. The southern part of the town- ship is a peninsula, lying between the mouth of Narragansett Bay and an inlet separating this part of the township from South Kingstown. Narragansett Pier, within the township, has a fine bathing beach, which extends along the indented coast between the village and the mouth of the Pattaquamscutt river; the force of the surf is somewhat broken by Point Judith, about 5 m. S. (also in the township), on which there is a lighthouse. On a ridge overlooking the ocean and commanding a fine view is the Point Judith Country Club, with golf courses, tennis courts and a polo-field, on which is held a horse show at the close of each season. Many of the summer visitors at Narragansett Pier are from New England, New York and Philadelphia, but there is a sufficient number from Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, Louisville and other Southern cities to give to its society a noticeably Southern tone. Narragansett Pier was so-named from the piers that were built here late in the i8th century and early in the igth to provide a port for the Narragansett Country, or southern Rhode Island, and it still has a coal wharf, and a yacht landing at the Casino. The development of the place as a summer resort was begun about the middle of the igth century by the erection of a bathing-house and the conversion of some farm houses into boarding houses. The erection of large hotels, and private residences soon followed, and the completion of the railway to the pier in 1876 increased its popularity. The District of Narragansett (in the town of South Kingstown) was organized in 1888 and in 1901 was incorporated as a separate township. The town is named from the Narraganset Indians, a once- powerful Algonquian tribe, which occupied much of the shore of Narragansett Bay. Under their chief Canonicus (d. 1647) they were friendly to the early Rhode Island settlers, and under Miantonomo (q.v.) entered into a tripartite treaty with the Connecticut colonists and the Mohegans; but after the execu- tion of Miantonomo the Narragansets under Miantonomo's son, Canonchet or Nanuntenoo, were less friendly. Their loyalty to the whites was suspected at the time of King Philip's War, and on the igth of December 1675, at the Great or Cedar Swamp (Narragansett Fort) in the present town of South Kingstown (immediately west of the town of Narragansett), they were decisively defeated by the whites, under Governor Josiah Winslow of the Plymouth Colony. The site of the engagement is marked by a granite monument erected in 1906 by the Rhode Island Society of Colonial Wars. Canonchet escaped, but on the 2nd of August 1676 was captured near Stonington, Connecticut, and on the following day was executed. Most of the survivors of the tribe were later settled among the Niantic, to whom the name Narraganset has been transferred. There are now few survivors of pure Indian blood. NARSES, NARSEH, NARSEUS, king of Persia, son of Shapur I. He rose as pretender to the throne against his grand-nephew Bahram III. in A.D. 292, and soon became-sole king. 'He attacked NARSES 241 the Romans, but after defeating the emperor Galerius near Callinicum on the Euphrates in 296 was completely defeated in 297, and forced to conclude a peace, by which western Meso- potamia and five provinces on the left bank of the upper Tigris were ceded to the Romans and their sovereignty over the kingdom of Armenia was acknowledged. This peace, concluded in 297, lasted for forty years. Narses died in 303 and was succeeded by his son Hormizd II. (Ed. M.) NARSES (c. 478-573) an important officer of Justinian, in the 6th century. He was a eunuch, but we are nowhere distinctly informed that he was of servile origin. A native of Persarmenia (that portion of Armenia which was allotted to Persia by the partition of 384), he may have been prepared and educated by his parents for service in an oriental court. If the statement that he died at the age of ninety-five be correct, he was born about 478. He was probably brought young to Constantinople, and attained a footing in the officium of the grand chamberlain. He rose to be one of the three (spectabiles) " chartularii," a position implying some literary attainment, and involving the custody of the archives of the household. Hence, probably in middle life, he became " praepositus sacri cubiculi," an "illustris," and entitled along with the praetorian prefects and the generals to the highe^ rank at the imperial court. In this capacity, in 530, he receivta into the emperor's obedience another Narses, a fellow-country- man, with his two brothers, Aratius and Isaac. These Pers- armenian generals, having formerly fought under the standard of Persia, now in consequence of the successes of Belisarius trans- ferred their allegiance to the emperor Justinian, came to Con- stantinople, and received costly gifts from the great minister. In 532 the insurrection known as the Nika broke out in Constantinople, when for some hours the throne of Justinian seemed doomed to overthrow. It was saved partly by the courage of his wife, Theodora, and partly by the timely prodigality of Narses, who stole out into the capital, and with large sums of money bribed the leaders of the " blue " faction, which was aforetime loyal to the emperor, to shout as of old " Justiniane Auguste tu vincas." The African and Italian wars followed. In the fourth year of the latter war (538) the splendid successes of Belisarius had awakened both joy and fear in the heart of his master. Reinforcements were sent into Italy, and Narses was placed at their head. Belisarius understood that Narses came to serve under him like any other officer of distinguished but subordinate rank, and he received a letter from Justinian which seemed to support this conclusion. But the friends of Narses continually plied him with suggestions that be, a great officer of the house- hold, in the secrets of the emperor, had been sent to Italy, not to serve as a subaltern, but to hold independent command and win military glory for himself. The truth probably lay between the two. Justinian could not deprive his great general of the supreme command, yet he wished to have a very powerful emissary of the court constantly at his side. He would have him watched but not hampered. The two generals met (A.D. 538) at Fermo on the Adriatic coast. The first interference of Narses with the plans of Belisarius was beneficial. John, one of the officers highest in rank under Belisarius, had pressed on to Rimini, contrary to the instructions of his chief, leaving in his rear the difficult fortress of Osimo (Auximum) untaken. His daring march had alarmed the Goths for Ravenna, and induced them to raise the siege of Rome; but he himself was now shut up in Rimini, and on the point of being forced by famine to surrender. Belisarius and his followers were prepared to let him pay the penalty of his rashness and disobedience. But his friend Narses so insisted on the blow to the reputation of the imperial arms which would be produced by the surrender of Rimini that he carried the council of war with him, and Belisarius had to plan a brilliant march across the mountains, in conjunction with a movement by the fleet, whereby Rimini was relieved while Osimo was still untaken. When Belisarius and John met, the latter ostentatiously thanked Narses alone for his preservation. His next use of his authority was less fortunate. Milan, which was holding out for the Romans, was also hard pressed by famine. The two generals who were sent to relieve it loitered disgracefully over their march, and, when Belisarius wished to despatch further reinforcements, the commanders of these new troops refused to stir till Narses gave them orders. Belisarius wrote to the eunuch pointing out the necessity of unity of purpose in the imperial army. At length, grudgingly, Narses gave his consent, and issued the required orders; but it was too late. Milan had been compelled by extremity of famine to surrender, and with it the whole province of Liguria fell into the hands of the enemy. This event forced Justinian to recognize the dangers of even a partially divided command, and he recalled Narses to Constantinople. Twelve years elapsed before Narses returned to Italy. Mean- while there had been great vicissitudes of fortune both for the Romans and the Goths. Italy, which appeared to have been won by the sword of Belisarius, had been lost again by the exactions and misgovernment of Alexander. Totila had raised up a new army, had more than kept Belisarius at bay in five difficult campaigns (544-548) and now held nearly all the country. Belisarius, however, in this his second series of campaigns, had , never been properly seconded by his master. In the spring of 552 Narses set sail from Salona on the Dalmatian coast with a large and well-appointed army. It was a Roman army only in name. Lombards, Heruli, Huns, Gepidae and even Persians followed the standard of Narses, men equal in physical strength and valour to the Goths, and inspired by the liberal pay which they received, and by the hope of plunder. The eunuch seems to have led his army round the head of the Adriatic Gulf. By skilfully co-operating with his fleet, he was able to cross the rivers of Venetia without fighting the Gothic general Teias, who intended to dispute their passage. Having mustered all his forces at Ravenna, he marched south- ward. He refused to be detained before Rimini, being determined to meet the Gothic king as soon as possible with his army un- diminished. The occupation of the pass of Furlo (Petra Pertusa) by the Goths prevented his marching by the Via Flaminia, but, taking a short circuit, he rejoined the great road near Cagli. A little farther on, upon the crest of the Appenines, he was met by Totila, who had advanced as far as Tadini, called by Procopius Tagina. Parleys, messages and harangues by each general followed. At length the line of battle was formed, and the Gothic army, probably greatly inferior in number to the Byzan- tine was hopelessly routed (July 552), the king receiving a mortal wound as he was hurrying from the battlefield. With Totila fell the last hopes of the Gothic kingdom of Italy. Teias, who was proclaimed his successor, protracted for a few months a desperate resistance in the rocky peninsula of Castella- mare, overlooking the bay of Naples. At length want of provisions forced him into the plain, and there by the river Sarno, almost in sight of Pompeii, was fought (553) a battle which is generally named from the overlooking range of Mons Lactarius (Monte Lettere). The actual site of the battle, however, is about half a mile from the little town of Angri, and its memory is still vaguely preserved by the name Pozzo dei Goli (well of the Goths). In this battle Teias was killed. He was the last king of the Ostrogoths. The task of Narses, however, was not yet ended. By the invitation of the Goths an army of 75,000 warlike Alamanni and Franks, the subjects of King Theudibald, crossed the Alps under the command of two Alamannic nobles, the brothers Lothair and Buccelin (553). The great strategic talents of Narses were shown even more conspicuously in this, than in his previous and more brilliant campaigns. Against the small but gallant bands of Totila and Teias he had adopted the policy of rapid marches and imperative challenges to battle. His strategy in dealing with the great host from Gaul was of the Fabian kind. He kept them as long as he could north of the Apennines, while he completed the reduction of the fortresses of Tuscany. At the approach of winter he gathered his troops into the chief cities and declined operations in the field, while the Alamannic brothers marched through Italy, killing and 242 NARSINGHGARH— NARVA plundering. When the spring of 554 appeared, Lothaire with his part of the army in-sisted on marching back to Gaul, there to deposit in safety the plunder which they had reaped. In an unimportant engagement near Pesaro he was worsted by the Roman generals, and this hastened his northward march. At Ceneda in Venetia he died of a raging fever. Pestilence broke out in his army, which was so wasted as to be incapable of further operations in Italy. Meanwhile his brother Buccelin, whose army was also suffering grievously from disease, partly induced by free indulgence in the grapes of Campania, encamped at Casilinum, the site of modern Capua. Here, after a time, Narses accepted the offered battle (554). The barbarians, whose army was in the form of a wedge, pierced the Roman centre. But by a most skilful manoeuvre Narses contrived to draw his lines into a curve, so that his mounted archers on each flank could aim their arrows at the backs of the troops who formed the other side of the Alamannic wedge. They thus fell in whole ranks by the hands of unseen antagonists. Soon the Roman centre, which had been belated in its march, arrived upon the field and completed the work of destruction. Buccelin and his whole army were destroyed, though we need not accept the statement of the Greek historian (Agathias ii. 9) that only five men out of the barbaric host of 30,000 escaped, and only eighty out of the Roman 18,000 perished. The only other important military operation of Narses which is recorded — and that indistinctly — is his defeat of the Herulian king Sindbal, who had served under him at Capua, but who subsequently revolted, was defeated, taken captive and hanged by the eunuch's order (565). In the main the thirteen years after the battle of Capua (554-567) were years of peace, and during them Narses ruled Italy from Ravenna with the title of prefect.1 He rebuilt Milan and other cities destroyed in the Gothic War; and two inscriptions on the Salarian bridge at Rome have preserved to modern times the record of repairs effected by him in the year 564. His administration, however, was not popular. The effect of the imperial organization was to wring the last solidus out of the emaciated and fever-stricken population of Italy, and the belief of his subjects was that no small portion of their contribu- tions remained in the eunuch's private coffers. At the close of 565 Justinian died, and a deputation of Romans waited upon his successor Justin II., representing that they found " the Greeks " harder taskmasters than the Goths, that Narses the eunuch was determined to reduce them all to slavery, and that unless he were removed they would transfer their allegiance to the barbarians. This deputation led to the recall of Narses in 567, accompanied, according to a somewhat late tradition, by an insulting message from the empress Sophia, who sent him a golden distaff, and bade him, as he was not a man, go and spin wool in the apartments of the women. " I will spin her such a hank," Narses is represented as saying, " that she shall not find the end of it in her lifetime " ; and forthwith he sent messengers to the Lombards in Pannonia, bearing some of the fruits of Italy, and inviting them to enter the land which bore such goodly produce. Hence came the invasion of Alboin (568), which wrested the greater part of Italy from the empire, and changed the destinies of the peninsula.2 1 Gibbon's statement that Narses was " the first and most powerful of the exarchs " is more correct in substance than in form. The title of exarch does not appear to be given to Narses by any con- temporary writer. He is always " Praefectus Italiae," " Patncius " or ' Dux Italiae," except when he bears the style of his former offices in the imperial household, " Ex-Praepositus [Cubiculi] " or " Chartularius." * This celebrated story seems to be unknown to strictly con- temporary authors. VVe find no hint of it in Agathias (who wrote between 566 and 582), in Marius (532-596), or in Gregory of Tours (540-594)- The possibly contemporary Liber Ponlificalis and Isidore of Seville (560-636) hint at the invitation to the Lombards. Frede- garius (so-called), who probably wrote in the middle of the 7th century, and Paul the Deacon, towards the close of the 8th, supply the saga-like details, which become more minute the farther the narrators are from the action. On the whole, the transaction, though it is too well vouched for to allow us to dismiss it as entirely fabulous, cannot take its place among the undoubted facts of history. Narses, who had retired to Naples, was persuaded by the pope (John III.) to return to Rome. He died there about 573, and his body, enclosed in a leaden coffin, was carried to Constantinople and buried there. Several years after his death the secret of the hiding-place of his vast stores of wealth is said to have been revealed by an old man to the emperor Tiberius II., for whose charities to the poor and the captives they furnished an opportune supply. Narses was short in stature and lean in figure. His freehanded- ness and affability made him very popular with his soldiers. Eva- grius tells us that he was very.religious, and paid especial reverence to the Virgin, never engaging in battle till he conceived that she had given him the signal. Our best authorities for his life are his contemporaries Procopius and Agathias. See Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vols. iv. and v., edited by J. B. Bury (1898). (T. H.) NARSINGHGARH, a native state of Central India, in the Bhopal agency. Area, 741 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 92,093; esti- mated revenue, £33,000; tribute to Holkar, £4000. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Omat clan. The state was founded about 1681 by a minister of Rajgarh, who compelled the ruler of that state to transfer to him half his territory. The town of Narsinghgarh had a population in 1901 of 8778. NARSINGHPUR, a town and district of British India, in the ^•l 'iiudda division of the Central Provinces. The town is on the river Singri, and has a railway station 52 m. E. of Jubbulpore; pop. (1901) 11,233. The district has an area of 1976 sq. m. It forms a portion of the upper part of the Nerbudda valley. The first of those wide alluvial basins which, alternating with rocky gorges, give so varied a character to the river's course, opens out just below the famous marble rocks in Jubbulpore, and extends westward for 225 m., including the whole of Narsinghpur, together with the greater part of Hoshangabad. The Satpura hills to the south are here a generally regular range, nowhere more than 500 ft. above the plain, and running almost parallel to the river, at a distance of 15 or 20 m. In the intervening valley, the rich level of black wheat land is seldom broken, except by occasional mounds of gravel or nodular limestone, which afford serviceable village sites. Along the foot of the boundary hills the alluvium gives way to belts of red gravelly soil, rice and sugar-cane take the place of wheat, and forest trees that of mango groves. The population in 1901 was 315,518, showing a decrease of 14-5% in the decade, due to famine. The principal crops are wheat, millets, rice, pulses, oil-seeds and cotton. There are manufactures of cotton, silk, brass and iron-ware. At Mohpani are coal-mines. The Great Indian Peninsula railway runs through the district, with a branch to Mohpani. See Narsinghpur District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1906). NARTHEX (Gr. vapOr/^, the name of the plant giant-fennel, in Lat./crw/a), the name applied in architecture, probably from a supposed resemblance in shape to the reed-like plant, to the long arcaded porch forming the entrance into a Christian church, to which the catechumens and penitents were admitted. Some- times there was a second narthex or vestibule within the church, when the outer one was known as the exonarthex. In Byzantine churches this inner narthex formed part of the main structure of the church, being divided from it by a screen of columns. A narthex is found in some German churches, where, however, it had no ritual meaning but was introduced as a western transept to give more importance to the west end. One of the finest examples to be found in England is that of Ely cathedral, where its northern portion, however, was apparently never completed. NARVA (Rugodiv of Russian annals, also Ivangorod), a seaport and fortress of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, 100 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of St Petersburg. Pop. (1897) 16,577. It stands on the Narova river, which flows from Lake Peipus or Chudskoye, and enters the Gulf of Finland in Narva Bay, 8 m. below this town. The town was founded in 1223 by Danes, and changed hands between the Teutonic knights, Danes, Swedes and Russians until it was taken by Peter the Great in 1704, after the Russians had suffered here a terrible defeat at the hands of Charles XII. of Sweden four years NARVACAN— NASCIMENTO 243 before. Its fortress, built on the right bank of the river, and known as Ivangorod, has lost its importance, and was abandoned in 1864. The cathedral and the town hall (1683) contain interesting antiquities. There are here an arsenal, a small museum and a school of navigation. Several manufactories utilize the waterfalls of the Narova, e.g. cotton-mills, woollen cloth mills, flax and jute mills, saw-mills and steam flour mills. The total trade falls short of half a million sterling annually. A watering-place has grown up at Ust-Narova, or Hungerburg, at the mouth of the Narova. NARVACAN, a town of the province of Ilocos Sur, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the coast and on the main road 13 m. S.S.E. of Vigan, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,575. It lies in a level valley surrounded by mountains, and has a cool and healthy climate. The soil, both in the valley and on the neighbouring mountain-sides, is very fertile, and produces rice, vegetables, Indian corn, indigo, cotton, tobacco, maguey and sugar-cane. Cotton fabrics are woven by the women and sold to the mountain tribes. The language of the town is Ilocano. NARVAEZ, PANFILO DE (c. 1480-1528), Spanish adventurer, was an hidalgo of Castile, born at Valladolid about 1480. He was one of the subordinates of Velazquez in the reduction of Cuba, and, after having held various posts under his governor- ship, was put at the head of the force sent to the Aztec coast to compel Cortes to renounce his command; he was surprised and defeated, however, by his abler and more active compatriot at Cempoalla, and made prisoner with the loss of an eye (1520). After his return to Spain he obtained from Charles V. a grant of Florida as far as the River of Palms; sailing in 1527 with five ships and a force of about 600 men, he landed, probably near Pensacola Bay, in April 1528, and, striking inland with some 300 of his followers, reached " Apalache " on June 25. The prospects of fabulous wealth which had sustained them in their difficult and perilous journey having proved illusory a return to the coast was determined, and the Bahia de los Caballos, at or near St Mark's, was reached in the following month. Having built rude boats, the much-reduced company sailed hence for Mexico on September 22, but the vessel which carried Narvaez was driven to sea in a storm and perished. His lieutenant, Cabeza de Vaca, with three others who ultimately reached land, made his way across Texas to the Gulf of California. (See FLORIDA.) See Prescott, Conquest of Mexico; H. H. Bancroft, Mexico (1882- 1890); and the Naufragio of Alvaro Nunez Cabeza de Vaca in the Bibiioteca of Rivadeneyra, xxii. NARVAEZ, RAMON MARIA (1800-1868), Spanish soldier and statesman, was born at Loja, Granada, on the 4th of August 1800, entered the army at an early age, and saw active service under Mina in Catalonia in 1822. He was in his sympathies a Con- servative, and could not go all lengths with the Radical opposi- tion to Ferdinand VII., whom he served after his restoration. When the king died, Narvaez became one of the Conservative supporters of Isabel II. He achieved great popularity by his victory over Gomez, the Carlist general, near Arcos, in November 1836, and after clearing La Mancha of brigands by a vigorous policy of suppression in 1838 he was appointed captain-general of Old Castile, and commander-in-chief of the army of reserve. In 1840, for the part he had taken at Seville in the insurrection against Espartero and the Progresista party, he was compelled to take refuge in France, where, in conjunction with Maria Cristina, he planned the expedition of 1843 which led to the overthrow of his adversary. In 1844 he became prime minister, and was created field-marshal and duke of Valencia, but his policy was too reactionary to be tolerated long, and he was compelled to quit office in February 1846. He now held the post of ambassador at Paris, until again called to preside over the council of ministers in 1847; but misunderstandings with Maria Cristina led to his resignation in the following year. His ministry succeeded that of O'Donnell for a short time in 1856-1857, and he again returned to power for a few months in 1864-1865. He once more replaced O'Donnell in July 1866, and was still in office when he died at Madrid on the 23rd of April 1868. Some very curious notices of Narvaez may be found in the letters of Prosper Merimee to Panizzi (1881). For his general political career see Hermann Baumgarten, Geschichte Spaniens p. Ausbruch d. franzos. Revol. bis auf unsere Tase (1865-1871); and the Historia Contemporanea of Antonio Pirala (1871—1879). NARVIK or VICTORIAHAVN, a seaport on the Ofoten Fjord of the north-west coast of Norway, in Nordland ami (county), 68° 30' N. It is wholly modern, developed by the construction and completion (1903) of the Ofoten railway, the most northerly in the world. There are extensive quays, from which is shipped the iron ore from the rich districts traversed by the line. Narvik is 167 m. N.W. of Gellivara, and 982 N. by W. of Stockholm by the railway. In summer express trains cover the whole distance in two days. Narvik is a convenient point from which to visit the beautiful Lofoten Islands. NARWHAL, the Scandinavian name of a cetacean (Monodon monoceros), characterized by the presence in the male of a long horn-like tusk. In the adult of both sexes there are only two teeth, both in the upper jaw, which lie horizontally side by side, and in the female remain throughout life concealed in cavities of the bone. In the male the right tooth usually remains similarly concealed, but the left is immensely developed, attaining a length equal to more than half that of the entire animal. In a narwhal 12 ft. long, from snout to end of tail, the exserted portion of the tusk may measure 6 or 7 and occasionally 8 ft. in length. It projects horizontally forwards from the head in the form of a cylindrical or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, composed of ivory, with a central cavity reaching almost to the apex, without enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and ridges, running in a sinistral direction. Occasionally both left and right tusks are developed, in which case the direction of the grooves is the same in both. No instance has ever been met with of the complete development of the right tusk associated with a rudimentary condition of the left. In young animals several small additional teeth are present, but these usually disappear soon after birth. The head is rather short and rounded; the fore limbs or paddles are small and broad compared with those of most dolphins; and (as in the beluga) a dorsal fin, found in nearly all other members of the group, is wanting. The general colour of the surface is dark grey above and white below, variously marbled and spotted with shades of grey. The narwhal is an Arctic whale, frequenting the icy circum- polar seas, and rarely seen south of 65° N. lat. Four instances have, however, been recorded of its occurrence on the British coasts, one on the coast of Norfolk in 1588, one in the Firth of Forth in 1648, one near Boston in Lincolnshire in 1800, while a fourth entangled itself among rocks in the Sound of Weesdale, Shetland, in September 1808. Like most cetaceans it is gregari- ous and usually met with in " schools " or' herds of fifteen or twenty individuals. Its food appears to be cuttlefishes, small fishes and crustaceans. The purpose served by the tusk — or " horn " — is not known; and little is known of the habits of narwhals. Scoresby describes them as " extremely playful, frequently elevating their horns and crossing them with each other as in fencing." They have never been known to charge and pierce the bottom of ships with their weapons, as the swordfish does. The name " sea-unicorn " is sometimes applied to the narwhal. The ivory of which the tusk is composed is of very good quality, but owing to the central cavity, only fitted for the manufacture of objects of small size. The entire tusks are sometimes used for decorative purposes, and are of considerable, though fluctuating, value. (See CETACEA.) (W. H. F.) NASCIMENTO, FRANCISCO MANOEL DE (1734-1819), Portuguese poet, better known by the literary name of Filinlo Elysio, bestowed on him by the Marqueza de Alorna, was the reputed son of a Lisbon boat-owner. In his early years he acquired a love of national customs and traditions which his humanist education never obliterated, while, in addition, he learnt to know the whole range of popular literature (litleratura de cordet) — songs, comedies, knightly stories and fairy tales, which were then printed in loose sheets (folhas volantcs) and sold by the blind in the streets of the capital. These circumstances 244 NASEBY explain the richness of his vocabulary, and joined to an ardent patriotism they fitted him to become the herald of the literary revival known as Romanticism, which was inaugurated by his distinguished follower Almeida Garrett. Nascimento began to write verses at the age of fourteen. He was ordained a priest in 1754, and shortly afterwards became treasurer of the Chagas church in Lisbon. He led a retired life, and devoted his time to the study of the Latin classics, especially Horace, and to the society of literary friends, among whom were numbered some cultivated foreign merchants. These men nourished the common ambition to restore Camoens, then half forgotten, to his rightful place as the king of the Portuguese Parnassus, and they pro- claimed the cult of the Quinhentistas, regarding them as the best poetical models, while in philosophy they accepted the teaching of the French Encyclopaedists. Nascimento's first publication was a version of one of Metastasio's operas, and his early work consisted mainly of translations. Though of small volume and merit, it sufficed to arouse the jealousy of his brother bards. At this time the Arcadia was working to restore good taste and purify the language of gallicisms, but the members of this society forgot the traditions of their own land in their desire to imitate the classics. Nascimento and other writers who did not belong to the Arcadia, formed themselves into a rival group, which met at the Ribeira das Naos, and the two bodies attacked one another in rhyme without restraint, until the " war of the poets," as it was called, ended with the collapse of the Arcadia. Nasci- mento now conceived a strong but platonic affection for D. Maria de Almeida, afterwards Condessa da Ribeira, sister of the famous poetess the Marqueza de Alorna. This lady sang the chansonnettes he wrote for her, and their poetical intercourse drew from him some lyrics of profound emotion. This was the happiest epoch of his life, but it did not last long. The accession of D. Maria I. inaugurated an era of reaction against the spirit and reforms of Pombal, and religious succeeded to political intolerance. In June 1778 Nascimento was denounced to the Inquisition on the charge of having given vent to heterodox opinions and read " the works of modern philosophers who follow natural reason." The tribunal held a secret inquiry, and without giving him an opportunity of defence issued an order for his arrest, which was to take place early in the morning of the I4th of July. He had received a warning, and succeeded in escaping to the house of a French merchant, Verdier, where he lay hid for eleven days, at the end of which his friend the Marquez de Marialva put him on board a French ship which carried him to Havre. Nascimento took up his residence in Paris, and his first years there passed pleasantly enough. Soon, however, his circumstances changed for the worse. He received the news of the confiscation of his property by the Inquisition; and though he strove to support himself by teaching and writing he could hardly make both ends meet. In 1792 his admirer Antonio de Araujo, afterwards Conde de Barca, then Portuguese minister to Holland, offered the poet the hospitality of his house at the Hague, but neither the country, the people, nor the language were congenial, and when his host went to Paris on a diplomatic mission in 1797 Nascimento accompanied him, and spent the rest of his life in and near the French capital. He retained to the end an intense love of country, which made him wish to die in Portugal, and in 1796 a royal decree permitting his return there and ordering the restoration of his goods was issued, but delays occurred in its execution, and the flight of the court to the Brazils as a result of the French invasion finally dashed his hopes. Before this the Conde de Barca had obtained him a commission from the Portuguese government to translate the De Rebus Emanuelis of Osorio; the assistance of some fellow-countrymen in Paris carried him through his last years, which were cheered by the friendship of his biographer and translator Alexandre San6 and of the Lusophil Ferdinand D6nis. Lamartine addressed an ode to him; he enjoyed the esteem of Chateaubriand; and his admirers at home, who imitated him extensively, were called after him Os Filintistas. Exile and suffering had enlarged his ideas and given him a sense of reality, making his best poems those he wrote between the ages of seventy and eighty-five, and when he passed away, it was recognized that Portugal had lost her foremost contempo- rary poet. Garrett declared that Nascimento was worth an academy in himself by his knowledge of the language, adding that no poet since Camoens had rendered it such valuable services; but his truest title to fame is that he brought literature once more into touch with the life of the nation. By his life, as by his works, Nascimento links the i8th and i9th centuries, the Neo-Classical period with Romanticism. Wieland's Oberon and Chateau- briand's Martyrs opened a new world to him, and his cantos or scenes of Portuguese life have a real romantic flavour; they are the most natural of his compositions, though his noble patriotic odes — those " To Neptune speaking to the Portuguese " and " To the liberty and independence of the United States " — are the most quoted and admired. On leaving Portugal, he abandoned the use of rhyme as cramping freedom of thought and expression; nevertheless his highly polished verses are generally robust to hardness and overdone with archaisms. His translations from Latin, French and Italian, are accurate though harsh, and his renderings of Racine and the Fables of Lafontaine entirely lack the simplicity and grace of the originals. But Nascimento's blank verse translation of the Mar tyrs is in many ways superior to Chateaubriand's prose. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The most useful edition of his collected works is that in 22 vols., Lisbon, 1836-1840. See Innocencio da Silva, Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez, ii. 446-457 and ix. 332-336; also Filinto Elysio e a sua Epoca, by Pereira da Silva (Rio, 1891); and Filinto Elysio, by Dr Theophilo Braga (Oporto, 1891). (E. PR.) NASEBY, a village of Northamptonshire, England, 7 m. S.S.W. of Market Harborough, famous as the scene of the battle of June 14, 1645, which decided the issue of the first Civil War (see GREAT REBELLION). The army of King Charles I. was less than 10,000 strong, while the " New Mode] " army of the parliament, commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, numbered some 13,000, yet it was not without considerable hopes of victory that the Royalists drew up for battle, for although Lieutenant-General Cromwell had made the New Model cavalry formidable indeed, the Royalist foot had become professionalized in several years of war, whereas the Parliamentarian foot was newly organized, and in part at least but half-trained. Fairfax and Cromwell, however, were still more confident, and with better reason. The battlefield lies between Naseby and Sibbertoft (3 m. N. of Naseby) and is an undulating ridge which, near the centre of England, forms the " divide " between the Avon and the Welland rivers. Across this ridge the two armies were drawn up, the New Model facing north and the king's army south, the horse on the flanks and the foot in the centre in each army. At the first shock the Royal foot asserted its superiority over the opposing infantry, four out of five regiments in the first line were broken, and Skippon, the major-general of the foot, was wounded. But Fairfax's regiment held its ground, until the second line of infantry advanced and re-established the front. Meantime the Royalist right wing of horse, led by Prince Rupert, had completely routed the horse of Colonel Ireton which opposed them. But the victors as usual indulged in a disorderly pursuit, and attempted to overpower the baggage guard of the enemy near Naseby village. Their incoherent attack was repulsed, and when Rupert, gathering as many of his men as he could, returned to the battlefield, the decisive stroke had been delivered by Cromwell and the right wing of Parliamentary horse. In front of him, in somewhat broken ground, was Sir Marmaduke Langdale's cavalry, which the lieutenant-general with his own well-trained regiments scattered after a short, fierce encounter. Cromwell's " godly " troopers did not scatter in pursuit. A few squadrons were ordered to keep the fugitives on the run, and with the rest, and such of Ireton's broken troops as he could gather, Cromwell attacked the Royalist centre in rear while Fairfax and his foot pressed it in front. Gradually the Royalist infantry, inferior in numbers, was disintegrated into small groups, which surrendered one after the other. But one brigade, called NASH— NASHE, THOMAS 245 the " Bluecoats," held out to the last, and was finally broken by a combined charge of Fairfax's regiment of foot, led by Cromwell, and the general's personal escort, led by Fairfax himself, who captured a colour with his'own hand. The remnant of the king's army, re-formed by Rupert, stood inactive and irresolute while its infantry was being destroyed and then fled. The spoils included 100 standards and colours and the king's private papers. But more important than trophies was the practical annihilation of the last field army of which the king disposed. Half the Royalists were captured, and about 1000 fell, in the battle and the pursuit which followed it. In addition all the artillery and the muskets (to the number of 8000) and ammunition without which the king could scarcely create a new army, fell into the hands of the victors. NASH, RICHARD (1674-1762), English dandy, better known as " BEAU NASH," was born at Swansea on the i8th of October 1674. He was descended from an old family of good position, but his father from straitened means had become partner in a glass business. Young Nash was educated at Carmarthen grammar school and at Jesus College, Oxford. He obtained a commission in the army, which, however, he soon exchanged for the study of law at the Temple. Here among " wits and men of pleasure " he came to be accepted as an authority in regard to dress, manners and style. When the members of the Inns of Court entertained William III. after his accession, Nash was chosen to conduct the pageant at the Middle Temple. This duty he performed so much to the satisfaction of the king that he was offered knighthood, but he declined the honour, unless accompanied by a pension. As the king did not take the hint, Nash found it necessary to turn gamester. The pursuit of his calling led him in 1705 to Bath, where he had the good fortune almost immediately to succeed Captain Webster as master of the ceremonies. His qualifications for such a position were unique, and under his authority reforms were introduced which rapidly secured to Bath a leading position as a fashionable watering-place. He drew up a new code of rules for the regulation of balls and assemblies, abolished the habit of wearing swords in places of public amusement and brought duelling into disrepute, induced gentlemen to adopt shoes and stockings in parades and assemblies instead of boots, reduced refractory chairmen to submission and civility, and introduced a tariff for lodgings. Through his exertions a handsome assembly-room was also erected, and the streets and public buildings were greatly improved. Nash adopted an outward state corresponding to his nominal dignity. He wore an immense white hat as a sign of office, and a dress adorned with rich embroidery, and drove in a chariot with six greys, laced lackeys and French horns. When the act of parliament against gambling was passed in 1745, he was deprived of an easy though uncertain means of subsistence, but the corporation afterwards granted him a pension of six score guineas a year, which, with the sale of his snuff-boxes and other trinkets, enabled him to support a certain faded splendour till his death on the 3rd of February 1762. He was honoured with a public funeral at the expense of the town. Notwith- standing his vanity and impertinence, the tact, energy and superficial cleverness of Nash won him the patronage and notice of the great, while the success of his ceremonial rule, as shown in the increasing prosperity of the town, secured him the gratitude of the corporation and the people generally. He was a man of strong personality, and considerably more able than Beau Brummell, whose prototype he was. See Lewis Melville, Bath under Beau Nash (1908), with full list of authorities; Oliver Goldsmith, Life of Richard Nash (1762). See also Gentleman's Magazine (1762); London Magazine, vol. xxxi. ; " The Monarch of Bath " in Blackwood's Magazine, vol. xlviii. NASHE (or NASH), THOMAS (1567-1601), English poet, playwright and pamphleteer, was born at Lowestoft in 1567. His father belonged to an old Herefordshire family, and is vaguely described as a " minister." Nashe spent nearly seven years, 1582 to 1589, at St John's College, Cambridge, taking his B .A. degree in 1 585-1 586. On leaving the university he tried, like Greene and Marlowe, to make his living in London by literature. It is probable that his first effort was The Anatomie of Absurditie (1589) which was perhaps written at Cambridge, although he refers to it as a forthcoming publication in his preface to Greene's Menaphon (1589). In this preface, addressed to the gentlemen students of .both universities, he makes boister- ous ridicule of the bombast of Thomas Kyd and the English hexameters of Richard Stanihurst, but does not forget the praise of many good books. Nashe was really a journalist born out of due time; he boasts of writing " as fast as his hand could trot "; he had a brilliant and picturesque style which, he was careful to explain, was entirely original; and in addition to his keen sense of the ridiculous he had an abundance of miscellaneous learning. As there was no market for his gifts he fared no better than the other university wits who were trying to live by letters. But he found an opening for his ready wit and keen sarcasm in the Martin Marprelate controversy. His share in this war of pamphlets cannot now be accurately determined, but he has, with more or less probability, been credited with the following: A Countercuffe given to Martin Junior (1589), Martins Months Minde (1589), The Returneof the renowned Cavaliero Pasquill and his Meeting with Marforius (1589), The First Parte of Pasquils Apologie (1590), and An Almond for a Parrot (1590). He edited an unauthorized edition of Sidney's poems with an enthusiastic preface in 1591, and A Wonderfull Astrologicall Prognostication, in ridicule of the almanac-makers, by " Adam Fouleweather," which appeared in the same year, has been attributed to him. Pierce Penilesse, His Supplication to the Divell, published in 1592, shows us his power as a humorous critic of national manners, and tells incidentally how hard he found it to live by the pen. It seems to Pierce a monstrous thing that brainless drudges wax fat while " the seven liberal sciences and a good leg will scarce get a scholar bread and cheese." In this pamphlet, too, Nashe began his attacks upon the Harveys by assailing Richard, who had written contemptuously of his preface to Greene's Menaphon. Greene died in September 1592, and Richard's brother, Gabriel Harvey, at once attacked his memory in his Foure Letters, at the same time adversely criticizing Pierce Penilesse. Nashe replied, both for Greene and for himself, in Strange Newes of the intercepting cerlaine Letters, better known, from the running title, as Foure Letters Confuted (1592), in which all the Harveys are violently attacked. The autumn of 1592 Nashe seems to have spent at or near Croydon, where he wrote his satirical masque of Summers Last Will and Testament at a safe distance from London and the plague. He afterwards lived for some months in the Isle of Wight under the patronage of Sir George Carey, the governor. In 1593 he wrote Christs Teares over Jerusalem, in the first edition of which he made friendly overtures to Gabriel Harvey. These were, however, in a second edition, published in the following year, replaced by a new attack, and two years later appeared the most violent of his tracts against Harvey, Have with you to Sajfron-walden, or, Gabriett Harveys Hunt is up (1596). In 1599 the controversy was suppressed by the archbishop of Canterbury. After Marlowe's death Nashe prepared his friend's unfinished tragedy of Dido (1596) for the stage. In the next year he was in trouble for a play, now lost,, called The Isle of Dogs, for only part of which, however, he seems to have been responsible. The " seditious and slanderous matter " contained in this play induced the authorities to close for a time the theatre at which it had been performed, and the dramatist was put in the Fleet prison. Besides his pamphlets and his play-writing, Nashe turned his energies to novel-writing. He may be regarded as the pioneer in the English novel of adventure. He published in 1594 The Unfortunate Traveller, Or the Life of Jack Wilton, the history of an ingenious page who was present at the siege of T6rouenne, and afterwards travelled in Italy with the earl of Surrey. It tells the story of the earl and Fair Geraldine, describes a tournament held by Surrey at Florence, and relates the adventures of Wilton and his mistress Diamante at Rome after the earl's return to England. The detailed, realistic manner in which Nashe relates his improbable fiction resembles that of Defoe. His last work is entitled Lenten 246 NASHUA— NASHVILLE and is nominally " in praise of the red herring," but really a description of Yarmouth, to which place he had retired after his imprisonment, written in the best style of a " special corre- spondent." Nashe's death is referred to in Thomas Dekker's Knight's Conjuring (1607), a kind of sequel to Pierce Penilesse. He is there represented as joining his boon companions in the Elysian fields " still haunted with the sharp and satirical spirit that followed him here upon earth." Had his patrons under- stood their duty, he would not, he said, have shortened his days by keeping company with pickled herrings. It may therefore be reasonably supposed that he died from eating bad and in- sufficient food. The date of his death is fixed by an elegy on him printed in Fitzgeffrey's Afaniae (1601). The works of Thomas Nashe were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart in 1883-1885, and more recently by Ronald B. McKerrow (1904). An account of his work as a novelist may Novel in the Time of Shakespeare, by J. j. Jusserand (Eng. trans., 1890). The Unfortunate Traveller was edited with an introduction by Edmund Gosse in 1892. See also " Nash's Unfortunate Traveller und Head's English Rogue, die beiden Hauptvertreter des englischen Schelmenromans," by W. Kollmann in Anglic (Halle, vol. xxii., 1899, pp. 81-140). NASHUA, a city and one of the county seats of Hillsboro county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Nashua and Merrimac rivers, 35 m. S.S.E. of Concord and 40 m. N.W. of Boston by rail. Pop. (1890) 19,311; (1900) 23,898, of whom 8093 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 26,005. Nashua is served by the Boston & Maine railroad, whose several divisions centring here give the city commercial importance, and by electric lines to Hudson, Litchfield, Pelham, Dracut and Tyngsboro. The area of the city in 1906 was 30- 7 1 sq. m. To the N.,W. and S.W. of the city there are beautiful hills and moun- tains. The church of Saint Francis Xavier and the First Con- gregational church are architecturally noteworthy. The city has a soldiers' monument, a public library, a court house and two hospitals. There is a United States fish hatchery here, and until after the close of the i8th century fishing was the principal industry of the place, as manufacturing is now. Water-power is furnished by the Nashua river and by Salmon Brook, and the city is extensively engaged in, manufactures, notably cotton goods, boots, shoes, and foundry and machine-shop products. The value of the city's factory products increased from $10,096,064 in 1900 to $12,858,382 in 1905, or 27-4%, and in 1905 Nashua ranked second among the manufacturing cities of the state. Nashua is one of the oldest interior settlements of the state. The first settlement here was established about 1665; and in 1673 the township of Dunstable was incorporated by the General Court of Massachusetts. In 1741, when the boundary between Massa- chusetts and New Hampshire was settled, the jurisdiction of this portion of Dunstable was transferred to New Hampshire; five years later it was incorporated under the laws of that state; and in 1803 the settlement, originally known as Indian Head, was incorporated as a village under the name of Nashua, and in 1836 the township of Dunstable also received the name Nashua. The town of Nashville was set apart from the town of Nashua in 1842, but the two towns were united under a city charter obtained in 1853. In 1795 the first stage coach was run through here from Boston to Amherst, and at about the same time a canal was built around Pawtucket Falls on the Merrimac at Lowell. In 1822 a manufacturing company was formed, which at once began to develop the water-power and in 1825 erected the first cotton mill. Thirteen years later the Nashua & Lowell railroad (now leased to the Boston & Maine) first reached Nashua. See The History of the City of Nashua, edited by E. E. Parker (Nashua, 1897). NASHVILLE, the capital of Tennessee, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Davidson county, on the Cumberland river, 186 m. S.S.W. of Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 76,168; (1900) 80,865, °f whom 3037 were foreign-born and 30,044 were negroes; (1910 census) 110,364. Nashville is served by the Tennessee Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Nashville, Chat- tanooga & St Louis railways, and by several steamboat lines. The Cumberland river is crossed here by four foot-bridges. Nashville is situated on and between hills and bluffs in an un- dulating valley; its streets are paved with brick or granite blocks in the business section and macadamized or paved with asphalt in the residential sections. The city has fine public buildings, many handsome residences, and several beautiful parks. The principal building is the State House, a fine example of pure Greek architecture, on the most prominent hill-top, with a tower 205 ft. in height. On the grounds about it are a bronze equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, by Clark Mills (1815-1883), and the tomb of President James K. Polk, who lived in Nashville. Other prominent buildings and institutions are the United States Government Building, the County Court House, the City Hall, the Tennessee School for the Blind, the Tennessee Industrial School, the State Library, the Library of the State Historical Society housed in Watkins Institute, a Carnegie library, park buildings, the State Penitentiary, Vend6me Theatre, the Board of Trade Building, the City Hospital, the St Thomas Hospital (Roman Catholic), and, near the city, a Confederate Soldiers' Home and a State Hospital for the Insane. Eleven miles east of the city is the " Hermitage," which was the residence of President Andrew Jackson. The grounds of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition of 1897 (commemorating the admission of Tennessee into the Union) on the west border of the city now constitute Centennial Park, in which still stand the reproduced Parthenon of Athens, the History Building, which in general outline is a reproduction of the Erectheum and contains a museum and an art gallery, and a monument to the memory of James Robertson (1742-1814), the founder of the city. Besides this there are four other parks: Glen- dale Park in the south section, a place of much natural beauty; Shelby Park, in the eastern part of the city, fronting the river; Watkins Park, on the north; and Cumberland Driving Park. In Mount Olivet Cemetery is a beautiful Confederate Soldiers' monument surrounded by the graves of 2000 Confederate soldiers, and a little to the north of the city is a National Cemetery in which 16,643 Federal soldiers are buried, the names of 4711 of them being unknown. Nashville is one of the foremost educational centres in the Southern states. In the western part of the city is Vanderbilt University. This institution, opened in 1875, is under the patronage of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and was named in honour of Cornelius Vanderbilt, who contributed $1,000,000 to its funds, and whose son, W. H. Vanderbilt, and grandsons, W. K. Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt, gave to the university about $820,000. It is coeducational and embraces an academic department, a biblical department, and departments of engineering, law, medicine, pharmacy and dentistry; in 1909 it had 125 instructors and 959 students. The University of Nashville is a non-sectarian institution embracing a college department, a medical department, a preparatory department, and the George Peabody College for Teachers; it was incorporated under the laws of North Carolina as Davidson Academy in 1785 and under the laws of Tennessee as Cumberland College in 1806, and the present name was adopted in 1826. The George Peabody College for Teachers, an important part of the institution, was opened as a normal school in 1875; in 1907-1908 it had an enrolment (including the summer session) of 647 students. In 1909 it received $1,000,000 from the Peabody Fund, later supple- mented by $250,000 from the state, $200,000 from the city and $100,000 from Davidson county. The University of Tennessee, located mainly at Knoxville, has at Nashville its medical and dental departments. Ward Seminary, opened in 1865, Boscobel College, opened in 1889, and Buford, Belmont and Radnor colleges are all non-sectarian institutions of Nashville for the higher educa- tion of women. For the education of negroes the city has Fisk University (opened in 1866, incorporated in 1867), under the auspices of the American Missionary Association and the Western Freedman's Aid Commission of the Congregational Church (noted since 1871 for its Jubilee Singers,who raised moneyfor Jubilee Hall, finished in 1876) ; it embraces a college department, a preparatory department, a normal department and departments of theology, music and physical training; and Walden University, founded as Central Tennessee College in 1866, under the auspices of the NASI— NASIK 247 Methodist Episcopal Church, and embracing a college depart- ment, a normal department, an industrial department, and departments of English, commerce, law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, music, bible training, nurse training and domestic science. The Baptist, the Methodist Episcopal (South), the Cumberland Presbyterian, and the African Baptist and the African Methodist Episcopal churches have publishing houses in Nashville. The leading manufactures of the city are flour and grist mill products (valued at $4,242,491 in 1905), lumber and timber products — Nashville is one of the greatest hard wood markets in the United States, and in 1905 the value of lumber and timber products was $1,119,162 and of planing-mill products, $1,299,066 — construction and repair of steam railway cars ($1,724,007 in 1905), tobacco ($1,311,019 in 1005), fertilizers ($846,511 in 1905), men's clothing ($720,227 in 1905), saddlery, harness, soap and candles. The total value of the products of the factories increased from $15,301,096 in 1900 to $23,109,601 (16-8% of the entire factory product of the state) in 1905, amounts greater than those of any other city m the state. Nashville has a large trade in grain, cotton, groceries, dry goods, drugs, and boots and shoes. The water-works and the electric lighting plant are owned and operated by the municipality. Nashville was founded in 1780 as " the advance guard of western civilization " by a company of two hundred or more pioneers under the leadership of James Robertson, the nearest settlement being at the time about three hundred miles distant. When first settled it was named Nashborough in honour of Abner Nash (1716-1786), who was at the time governor of North Caro- lina, or more probably in honour of the Revolutionary general, Francis Nash (1720-1777), a brother of Abner, killed at German- town; but when, in 1784, it was incorporated as a town by the North Carolina legislature the present name was substituted. In 1806 Nashville was chartered as a city. Although it was not made the capital of the state until 1843, the legislature met here from 1812 with the exception of the period from 1815 to 1826. Many of the pioneers of Nashville were slain by the Creek and Cherokee Indians, and at times the settlement was saved from destruction only by the heroism of Robertson, but in 1794 the savages were dealt a crushing blow at Nickojack on the lower Tennessee and much more peaceful relations were established. On the 3rd of June 1850 a convention, known as the Southern or Nashville Convention, whose action was generally considered a threat of disunion, met here to consider the questions at issue between the North and the South. Since such a meeting had first been proposed by a state convention of Mississippi, the famous Compromise Measures of 1850 had been introduced in Congress and the support of the movement had been greatly weakened thereby except in South Carolina and Mississippi. Nine states, however, were represented by about 100 delegates, mostly Democrats, and the convention denounced the Wilmot Proviso, and, as " an extreme concession on the part of the South," promised to agree that, W. of Missouri, there should be slavery only in the territory S. of 36° 30' N. lat. At an adjourned meeting in November it expressed its dissatisfaction with the Compromise Measures of Congress, and asserted the right of the South to secede. During the Civil War Nashville was at first held by the Con- federates, but early in 1862 it was occupied by the Federals, who retained possession of it to the end. The battle of Nashville was fought on the isth and i6th of December 1864 between the Union army under Major-General G. H. Thomas and the Confederates under General J. B. Hood. The Union defences extended in a semicircle round Nashville, the flanks on the river above and below. Hood's army was to the south-east, lightly entrenched, with its flanks on two creeks which empty into the Cumberland above and below Nashville. This position he desired to maintain as long as possible so as to gather recruits and supplies in safety. If Thomas, whose army was of motley composition, attacked, he hoped to defeat him and to enter Nashville on his heels. Thomas, however, would not strike until he had his army organized. Then, on the isth, he emerged from the entrenchments and by a vigorous attack on the Con- federate left forced back Hood's line to a second position 15 m. to the south. Hood, having detached a part of his army, desired to gain time to bring in his detachments by holding this line for another day. Thomas, however, gave him no respite. On the 1 6th the Union army deployed in front of him, again over-lap- ping his left flank, and although a frontal attack was repulsed, the extension of the Federal right wing compelled Hood to extend his own lines more and more. Then the Federals broke the attenuated line of defence at its left centre, and Hood's army drifted away in disorder. The pursuit was vigorous, and only a remnant of the Confederate forces reassembled at Columbia, 40 m. to the south, whence they fell back without delay behind the Tennessee. NASI, JOSEPH (i6th century), Jewish statesman and financier, was born in Portugal of a Jewish (Marano) family. Emigrating from his native land, he founded a banking house in Antwerp. Despite his financial and social prosperity there, he felt it irk- some to be compelled to wear the guise of Catholicism, and determined to settle in a Mahommedan land. After two troubled years in Venice, Nasi betook himself to Constantinople. Here he proclaimed his Judaism, and married his beautiful cousin Reyna. He rapidly rose to favour, the sultans Suleiman and Selim promoting him to high office. He founded a Jewish colony at Tiberias which was to be an asylum for the Jews of the Roman Campagna. In 1 566 when Selim ascended the throne, Nasi was made duke of Naxos. He had deserved well of Turkey, for he had conquered Cyprus for the sultan. Nasi's influence was so great that foreign powers often negotiated through him for concessions which they sought from the sultan. Thus the emperor of Germany, Maximilian II., entered into direct corre- spondence with Nasi; William of Orange, Sigismund August II., king of Poland, also conferred with him on political questions of moment. On the death of Selim in 1574, Nasi receded from his political position, but retained his wealth and offices, and passed the five years of life remaining to him in honoured tranquillity at Belvedere (Constantinople). He died in 1579. His career was not productive of direct results, but it was of great moral importance. It was one of the tokens of the new era that was to dawn for the Jews as trusted public officials and as members of the state. See Graetz, History of (he Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. iv. chs. xvi.- xvii. ; Jewish Encyclopedia, ix. 172. (I. A.) NASIK, a. town and district of British India, in the central division of Bombay. The town is on the Godavari river, con- nected by a tramway (5 m.) with Nasik Road railway station, 107 m. N.E. of Bombay. Pop. (1001) 21,490. It is a very holy place of Hindu pilgrimage, being 30 m. from the source of the Godavari. Shrines and temples line the river banks, and some stand even in the river. In the vicinity there are a number of sacred caves, among which those of Pandu Lena are the most noteworthy. They are ancient Buddhist caves dating from the 3rd century before Christ to the 6th century after. There are numerous inscriptions of the highest historical value. Nasik has manufactures of cotton goods, brass-ware and mineral waters. The DISTRICT OF NASIK has an area of 5850 sq. m. With the exception of a few villages in the west, the whole district is situated on a tableland from 1300 to 2000 ft. above sea-level. The western portion is hilly, and intersected by ravines, and only the simplest kind of cultivation is possible. The eastern tract is open, fertile and well cultivated. The Sahyadri range stretches from north to south; the watershed is formed by the Chander range, which runs east and west. All the streams to the south of that range are tributaries of the Godavari. To the north of the watershed, the Girna and its tributary the Mosam flow through fertile valleys into the Tapti. The district generally is destitute of trees, and the forests which formerly clothed the Sahyadri hills have nearly disappeared; efforts are now being made to prevent further destruction, and to reclothe some of the slopes. The district contains several old hill forts, the scenes of many engagements during the Mahratta wars. Nasik district NASIR KHOSRAU— NASMYTH, A. became British territory in 1818 on the overthrow of the peshwa. The population in 1901 was 816,504, showing a decrease of 3 % in the decade. The principal crops are millet, wheat, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton and sugar cane. There are also some vineyards of old date, and much garden cultivation. Yeola is an important centre for weaving silk and cotton goods. There are flour-mills at Malegaon, railway workshops at Igatpuri, and cantonments at Deolali and Malegaon. At Sharanpur is a Christian village, with an orphanage of the C.M.S., founded in 1854. The district is crossed by the main line and also by the chord line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway. NASIR KHOSRAU (Nasiri Khusru), Abu Mu'in-ed-din Nasir b. Khosrau (1004-1088), whose nom de plume was Hujjat, the first great didactic poet of Persia, was born, according to his own statement, A.H. 394 (A.D. 1004), at Kubadiyan, near Balkh in Khorasan. The first forty-two years of his life are obscure; we learn from incidental remarks of his that he was a Sunnite, probably according to the Hanifite rite, well versed in all the branches of natural science, in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and astrology, in. Greek philosophy, and the interpretation of the Koran; that he was much addicted to worldly pleasures, especially to excessive wine drinking. He had studied Arabic, Turkish, Greek, the vernacular languages of India and Sind, and perhaps even Hebrew; he had visited Multan and Lahore, and the splendid Ghaznavide court under Sultan Mahmud, Firdousl's patron. Later on he chose Merv for his residence, and was the owner of a house and garden there. In A.H. 437 (A.D. 1045) he appears as financial secretary and revenue collector of the Seljuk sultan Toghrul Beg, or rather of his brother Jaghir Beg, the emir of Khorasan, who had conquered Merv in 1037. About this time, inspired by a heavenly voice (which he pretends to have heard in a dream), he abjured all the luxuries of life, and resolved upon a pilgrimage to the holy shrines of Mecca and Medina, hoping to find there the solution of all his religious doubts. The graphic description of this journey is contained in the Safarndma, which possesses a special value among books of travel, since it contains the most authentic account of the state of the Mussulman world in the middle of the nth century. The minute sketches of Jerusalem and its environs are even now of practical value. During the seven years of his journey (A.D. 1045-1052) Nasir visited Mecca four times, and performed all the rites and observances of a zealous pilgrim; but he was far more attracted by Cairo, the capital of Egypt, and the residence of the Fatimite sultan Mostansir billah, the great champion of the Shfa, and the spiritual as well as political head of the house of 'All, which was just then waging a deadly war against the 'Abbaside caliph of Bagdad, and the great defender of the Sunnite creed, Toghrul Beg the Seljuk. At the very time of Nasir's visit to Cairo, the power of the Egyptian Fatimites was in its zenith; Syria, the Hejaz, Africa, and Sicily obeyed Mostansir's sway, and the utmost order, security and prosperity reigned in Egypt. At Cairo he became thoroughly imbued with Shfa doctrines, and their introduction into his native country was henceforth the sole object of his life. The hostility he encountered in the propagation of these new religious ideas after his return to Khorasan in 1052 and Sunnite fanaticism compelled him at last to flee, and after many wander- ings he found a refuge in Yumgan (about 1060) in the mountains of Badakshan, where he spent as a hermit the last decades of his life, and gathered round him a considerable number of devoted adherents, who have handed down his doctrines to succeeding generations. Most of Nasir's lyrica! poems were composed in his retirement, and their chief topics are^ — an enthusiastic praise of "All, his de- scendants, and Mostansir in particular; passionate outcries against Khorasan and its rulers, who had driven him from house and home ; the highest satisfaction with the quiet solitude of Yumgan; and utter despondency again in seeing himself despised by his former associates and for ever excluded from participation in the glorious contest of life. But scattered through all these alternate outbursts of hope and despair we find precious lessons of purest morality, and solemn warnings against the tricks and perfidy of the world, the vanity of all earthly splendour and greatness, the folly and injustice of men, and the hypocrisy, frivolity and viciousness of fashionable society and princely courts in particular. It is the same strain which runs, although in a somewhat lower key, through his two larger mathnawis or double-rhymed poems, the Rushanainama, or " book of enlightenment," and the Sa'adatnama, or " book of feli- city." The former is divided into two sections: the first, of a meta- physical character, contains a sort of practical cosmography, chiefly based on Avicenna's theories, but frequently intermixed both with the freer speculations of the well-known philosophical brotherhood of Basra, the Ikhwan-es-safa'i, and purely Shi'ite or Isma'ilite ideas; the second, or ethical section of the poem, abounds in moral maxims and ingenious thoughts on man's good and bad qualities, on the necessity of shunning the company of fools and double-faced friends, on the deceptive allurements of the world and the secret snares of ambitious craving for rank and wealth. It concludes with an imaginary vision of a beautiful world of spirits who have stripped off the fetters of earthly cares and sorrows and revel in the pure light of divine wisdom and love. If we compare this with a similar allegory in Nasir's diwan, which culminates in the praise of Mostansir, we are fairly entitled to look upon it as a covert allusion to the eminent men who revealed to the poet in Cairo the secrets of the Isma'ilitic faith, and showed him what he considered the " heavenly ladder " to superior knowledge and spiritual bliss. The passage, thus interpreted, lends additional weight to the correctness of Dr Ethe"s reconstruction of the date of the Rushanainama, viz. A.H. 440 (A.D. 1049), which, notwithstanding M. Schefcr's objections, is warranted both by the astronomical details and by the metrical requirements of the respective verses. That of course does not exclude the possi- bility of the bulk of the poem having been composed at an earlier period; it only ascribes its completion or perhaps final revision to Nasir's sojourn in Egypt. A similar series of excellent teachings on practical wisdom and the blessings of a virtuous life, only of a severer and more uncom- promising character, is contained in the Sa'adalnama; and, judging from the extreme bitterness of tone manifested in the " reproaches of kings and emirs," we should be inclined to consider it a protest against the vile aspersions poured out upon Nasir's moral and religious attitude during those persecutions which drove him at last to Yumgan. Of all the other works of our author mentioned by Oriental writers there has as yet been found only one, the Zad- elmusafirin or " travelling provisions of pilgrims " (in the private possession of M. Schefer, Paris), a theoretical description of his religious and philosophical principles; and we can very well dismiss the rest as being probably just as apocryphal as Nasir's famous auto- biography (found in several Persian tadhkiras or biographies of poets), a mere forgery of the most extravagant description, which is mainly responsible for the confusion in names and dates in older accounts of our author. See Sprenger's Catalogue of the Libraries of the King of Oudh ( 1 854) ; H. Bine", Nasir Chusrau's Rushanainama," in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, xxxiii., xxxiv., 1879-1880; E. Fagnan, " Le Livrede la fe'licite'," in vol. xxxiv. of the same journal, 643-674; Ch. Schefer, Sefer Nameh, publit, traduit et annoie (Paris, 1881), and by Guy le Strange in Pilgrims' Text Society (1888); H. Eth6, in Gdttinger Nachrichten, 1882, pp. 124-152, Z.D.M.G., 1882, pp. 478-508; and Geiger's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie ii. . 278; Fagnan in Journ. As. 7th ser. vol. xiii. pp. 164 seq., and ieu, Cat. Pers. MSS. in Br. Mus., concluded that the poet and the ilgrim were different persons. The opposite view was developed by p. R NASIRABAD, or MYMENSINGH, a town of British India, headquarters of Mymensingh district in Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on the left bank of the old channel of the Brahma- putra, which is only navigable during the rainy season. Pop. (1901) 14,668. It has a station on the branch of the Eastern Bengal railway from Dacca to Jagannathganj, on the Jamuna or main stream of the Brahmaputra. The earthquake of the 1 2th of June 1897 destroyed the church and the high school, and seriously damaged other public buildings. NASIRABAD is also the name of a town and cantonment in the district of Aimere, Rajputana. Pop. (1901) 22,494. It forms the headquarters of a brigade in the 5th division of the Southern army. NASMYTH, ALEXANDER (1758-1840), Scottish portrait and landscape painter, was born in Edinburgh on the gth of September 1758. He studied at the Trustees' Academy under Runciman, and, having been apprenticed as an heraldic painter to a coach- builder, he, at the age of sixteen, attracted the attention of Allan Ramsay, who took the youth with him to London, and employed him upon the subordinate portions of his works. Nasmyth returned to Edinburgh in 1778, and was soon largely patronized as a portrait painter. He also assisted Mr Miller of Dalswinton, as draughtsman, in his mechanical researches and experiments; and, this gentleman having generously offered the painter a loan to enable him to pursue his studies abroad, he left in 1782 for Italy, where he remained two years. On his return he painted NASMYTH, J.— NASRIDES, THE the excellent portrait of Burns, now in the Scottish National Gallery, well known through Walker's engraving. Political feeling at that time ran high in Edinburgh, and Nasmyth's pronounced Liberal opinions, which he was too outspoken and sincere to disguise, gave offence to many of his aristocratic patrons, and led to the diminution of his practice as a portraitist. In his later years, accordingly, he devoted himself mainly to landscape work, and did not disdain on occasion to set his hand to scene-painting for the theatres. He has been styled, not unjustly, the " father of Scottish landscape art." His subjects are carefully finished and coloured, but are wanting in boldness and freedom. Nasmyth was also largely employed by noblemen throughout the country in the improving and beautifying of their estates, in which his fine taste rendered him especially skilful; and he was known as an architect, having designed the Dean Bridge, Edinburgh, and the graceful circular temple covering St Bernard's Well. Nasmyth died in his native city on the loth of April 1840. His youngest son, James, was the well-known inventor of the steam-hammer. His six daughters all attained a certain local reputation as artists, but it was in his eldest son, Patrick (1787-1831), that the artistic skill of his family was most powerfully developed. Having studied under his father, Patrick went to London at the age of twenty, and soon attracted atten- tion as a clever landscapist. He was a diligent stu4ent of the works of Claude and Richard Wilson, and of Ruysdael and Hobbema, upon whom his own practice was mainly founded. His most characteristic paintings are of English domestic scenery, full of quiet tone and colour, and detailed and minute expression of foliage, and with considerable brilliancy of sky effect. They were executed with his left hand, his right having in early life been injured by an accident. For an account of the Nasmyth family see James Nasmyth's Autobiography (1883). NASMYTH, JAMES (1808-1890), Scottish engineer, was born in Edinburgh on the igth of August 1808, and was the youngest son of Alexander Nasmyth, the "father of Scottish landscape art." He was sent to school in his native city, and then attended classes in chemistry, mathematics and natural philosophy at the university. From an early age he showed great fondness for mechanical pursuits, and the skill he attained in the practical use of tools enabled him to make models of engines, &c., which found a ready sale. In 1829 he obtained a position in Henry Maudslay's works in London, where he stayed two years, and then, in 1834, started business on his own account in Manchester. The beginnings were small, but they quickly developed, and in a few years he was at the head of the prosperous Bridgewater foundry at Patricroft, from which he was able to retire in 1856 with a fortune. The invention of the steam-hammer, with which his name is associated, was actually made in 1839, a drawing of the device appearing in his note-book, or " scheme-book," as he called it, with the date 24th November of that year. It was designed to meet the difficulty experienced by the builders of the Great Britain steamship in finding a firm that would under- take to forge the large paddle-wheel shaft required for that vessel, but no machine of the kind was constructed till 1842. In that year Nasmyth discovered one in Schneiders' Creuzot works, and he found that the design was his own and had been copied from his " scheme-book." His title, therefore, to be called the inventor of the steam-hammer holds good against the claims sometimes advanced in favour of the Schneiders, though apparently he was anticipated in the idea by James Watt. Nasmyth did much for the improvement of machine-tools, and his inventive genius devised many new appliances — a planing- machine (" Nasmyth steam-arm "), a nut-shaping machine, steam pile-driver, hydraulic machinery for various purposes, &c. In his retirement he lived at Penshurst in Kent, and amused himself with the study of astronomy, and especially of the moon, on which he published a work, The Moon considered as a Planet, a World and a Satellite, in conjunction with James Carpenter in 1874. He died in London on the 7th of May 1890. His Autobiography, edited by Dr Samuel Smiles, was published in 1883. 249 NASR-ED-DIN [NASIRU'D-DIN] (1829-1896), shah of Persia, was born on the 4th of April 1 8 2 9. His mother, a capable princess of the Kajar family, persuaded Shah Mahommed, his father, to appoint him heir apparent, in preference to his elder brothers; and he was accordingly made governor of Azerbaijan. His succession to the throne, i3th October 1848, was vigorously disputed, especially by the followers of the reformer El Bab, upon whom he wreaked terrible vengeance. In 1855. he re- established friendly relations with France, and coming under the influence of Russia, signed a treaty of amity on the i7th of December with that power, but remained neutral during the Crimean war. In 1856 he seized Herat, but a British army under Outram landed in the Persian Gulf, defeated his forces and compelled him to evacuate the territory. The treaty of peace was signed at Paris, on the 4th of March 1857, and to the end of his reign he treated Great Britain and Russia with equal friend- ship. In 1866 the shah authorized the passage of the telegraph to India through his dominions and reminted his currency in the European fashion. In 1873, and again in 1889, he visited England in the course of his three sumptuous journeys to Europe, 1873,1878,1889. The only results of his contact with Western civilization appear to have been the proclamation of religious toleration, the institution of a postal service, accession to the postal union and the establishment of a bank. He gave the monopoly of tobacco to a private company, but was soon com- pelled to withdraw it in deference to the resistance of his subjects. Abstemious in habits, and devoted to music and poetry, he was a cultured, able and well-meaning ruler, and his reign, already unusually long for an Eastern potentate, might have lasted still longer had it not been for the unpopular sale of the tobacco monopoly, which was probably a factor in his assassination at Teheran on the ist of May 1896 by a member of the Babi faction. He was succeeded by his son Muzaffar-ed-din. NASRIDES, THE, of Granada, were the last of the Mahom- medan dynasties in Spain. They ruled from 1 232 to 1492. They arose at the time when the king of Castile, Fernando the Saint, was conquering Andalusia. The dynasty was of remote Arabic origin, but its immediate source was the mountain range of the Alpujarra, and the founder was Yusuf (or Yahia) 1'Nasr, a chief who was engaged in perpetual conflict with rival chiefs and in particular with the family of Beni-Hud, once kings at Saragossa, who held the fortress of Granada. Yusuf's nephew (or son) Mahommed completed the defeat of the Beni-Hud largely by the help of the king of Castile, to whom he did homage and paid tribute. Mahommed I., called el Ghalib, i.e. the Conqueror (i 238- 1273), served the Christian king against his own co-religionists at the siege of Seville and contrived to escape in the general wreck of the Mahommedan power. The internal history of the dynasty is largely made up of civil dissensions, personal rivalries, palace and harem intrigues. The direct male line of Mahommed el Ghalib ended with the fourth sultan, Nasr, in 1314. Nasr was succeeded by his cousin Imail (1314-1325), who is said to have been connected with the original stock only through women. From Mahommed el-Ghalib to Mahommed XL, called Boabdil, and also the little king " El Rey Chico " by the Christians, who lost Granada in 1492, there are counted twenty-nine reigns of the Nasrides, giving an average of nine years. But there was not the same number of sultans, for several of them were expelled and restored two or three times. Nor did all the members of the house who were allowed to have been sultans reign over all the territory still in Mahommedan hands. There were .contemporary reigns in different parts, and tribal or local rivalries between plain and hill, and the chief towns, Granada, Malaga and Guadix. The dissensions of the Nasrides reached their greatest pitch of fury during the very years in which the Catholic sovereigns were conquering their territory piecemeal, 1482-1492. Their position imposed a certain consistency of policy on these sultans. They submitted and paid tribute to the kings of Castile when they could not help doing so, but they endeavoured to use the support of Mahommedan rulers of northern Africa whenever it was to be obtained. Granada became the recognized place of refuge for rebellious subjects of the kings of Castile, and on occasion 25° NASSARAW A— NASSAU supported them against rebels. The end came when the weakness of Mahommedan rulers in Morocco coincided with the rule of strong sovereigns in Castile. Frontier wars between Mahom- medan and Christian borderers were incessant, and at long intervals the kings of Castile made invasions on a considerable scale, without, however, following up any successes they might gain. The comparative prosperity of Granada was due to the concentration of a large population driven from other parts of Spain, and the consequent necessity for the intensive cultivation of the rich valleys lying among the ranges of mountains which encircle the kingdom, and the extensive " Vega " or plain of Granada. The reputation for civilization which the agitated Mahommedan state enjoys in history is based on the surviving parts of the highly decorated fortress palace of the Alhambra, which was mainly the work of three of the sultans, the founder, Mahommed el Ghalib, and his two successors. See S. Lane-Poole, The Mahommedan Dynasties (London, 1894) ; and Historia de Granada, by Don M. Lafuente Alcantara (Granada, 1884). NASSARAWA, a province of the British protectorate of northern Nigeria, lying approximately between 6° 40' and 9° E. and between 7° 40' and 9° 40' N. It is situated on the northern bank of the river Benue, which in its windings forms the southern frontier of the province. Nassarawa is bounded E. by the province of Muri, N.E. by Bauchi, N. by Zaria and W. by Nupe and the trans-Nigerian portion of the province of Kabba. It has an area of 18,000 sq. m. and an estimated population of 1,500,000. The province, like that of Bauchi, is traversed by mountainous regions. It possesses valuable forests and many fertile river valleys. Native products include rubber, palm kernels and beni seed. Cotton is grown extensively. Until the middle of the i8th century Nassarawa appears to have been peopled by many native tribes of a primitive type. About 1750 an important pagan tribe, the Igbira, came from the south- west across the Niger and established two rival kingdoms in the western portion of the province. Later the native inhabitants of Zaria, driven before the Fula, came from the north and occupied the central portion of Nassarawa. Later still (about 1840) certain Fula of Zaria themselves conquered portions of the province, founded Keffi, spread as far as the Benue in the south-west corner and occupied the town and district of Abuja in the west. Fula also made a settlement at the town of Nassarawa and at Darroro in the N.E. A colony from Bornu entered the province and founded the important town of Lafia Berebere in the eastern district. As a result of these movements the aboriginal tribes were driven into the hilly regions of the S.E. and N.E. The Munshi, a truculent and hardy people, hold a portion of the northern bank of the Benue, and the Kagoro and Attakar tribes hold the hilly country to the N.E., through which the road passes from Keffi and Lafia to the Bauchi high- lands. Before the British occupation the state of Nassarawa had become a partially subdued Fula emirate, exercising doubtful sway over the native pagans and paying a scarcely less doubtful allegiance on its own part to the Fula ruler of Zaria. The riverain tribes of Nassarawa were among the first to break into open aggression against the British administration established at Lokoja. In January 1900 they attacked a telegraph construc- tion party in the Munshi country on the banks of the Benue. The result was the occupation of Keffi by British troops and the gradual subjugation of the province. In 1902 the first British resident, Captain Moloney, was murdered at Keffi by an official of the emir's court. The emir repudiated all re- sponsibility for the crime, and the murderer fled to Kano, where his reception on friendly terms was among the incidents which determined the Sokoto-Kano campaign of 1903. The British were now recognized as the rulers of Nigeria, and the emir of Nassarawa threw in his lot with the British government. Slave raiding was abolished and the slave trade made illegal. A British court of justice was established at the provincial head- quarters and native courts in every district. Roads have been opened and trade is steadily increasing. In 1905 an expedition was required against the Kagoro people, who occupy a vast open plateau having an elevation of about 1800 ft. through which a short road to the Bauchi tin mines passes from the Benue. These people had been raiding the Fula for cattle and murdering traders upon the road. A splendid grazing country, healthy and also rich in rubber, was opened. The road to the tin mines was rendered safe and is now the Bauchi mail route. There is a cart road from Loko on the Benue to Keffi. (F. L. L.) NASSAU, a territory of Germany, now forming the bulk of the government district of Wiesbaden, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, but until 1866 an independent and sovereign duchy of Germany. It consists of a compact mass of territory, 1830 sq. m. in area, bounded on the S. and W. by the Main and Rhine, on the N. by Westphalia and on the E. by Hesse. This territory is divided into two nearly equal parts by the river Lahn, which flows from east to west into the Rhine. The southern half is almost entirely occupied by the Taunus Mountains, which attain a height of 2900 ft. in the Great Feldberg, while to the north of the Lahn is the barren Westerwald, culminating in the Salzburgerkopf (2000 ft.). The valleys and low-lying districts, especially the Rheingau, are very fertile, producing abundance of grain, flax, hemp and fruit; but by far the most valuable product of the soil is its wine, which includes several of the choicest Rhenish varieties, such as Johannisberger, Marco- brunner and Assmannshauser. Nassau is one of the most thickly wooded regions in Germany, about 42 % of its surface being occupied by forests, which yield good timber and harbour large quantities of game. The rivers abound in fish, the salmon fisheries on the Rhine being especially important. There are upwards of a hundred mineral springs in the district, most of which formerly belonged to the duke, and afforded him a con- siderable part of his revenue. The best known are those of Wiesbaden, Ems, Soden, Schwalbach, Schlangenbad, Geilnau and Fachingen. The other mineral wealth of Nassau includes iron, lead, copper, building stone, coals, slate, a little silver and a bed of malachite. Its manufactures, including cotton and woollen goods, are unimportant, but a brisk trade is carried on by rail and river in wine, timber, grain and fruit. There are few places of importance besides the above-named spas; Hochst is the only manufacturing town. Wiesbaden, with 100,955 inhabitants, is the capital of the government district as it was of the duchy. In 1864 the duchy contained 468,311 in- habitants, of whom 242,000 were Protestants, 215,000 Roman Catholics and 7000 Jews. The ecclesiastical jurisdiction was in the hands of the Protestant bishop of Wiesbaden and the Roman Catholic bishop of Limburg. Education was amply provided for in numerous higher and lower schools. The annual revenue of the dukedom was about £400,000 and it furnished a contingent of 6000 men to the army of the German Confederation. History. — During the Roman period the district enclosed by the Rhine, the Main and the Lahn was occupied by the Mattiaci and later by the Alamanni. The latter were subdued by the Franks under Clovis at the end of the 5th century, and at the partition of Verdun in 843 the country became part of the East Prankish or German kingdom. Christianity seems to have been introduced in the 4th century. The founder of the house of Nassau is usually regarded as a certain Drutwin (d. 1076), who, with his brother Dudo, count of Laurenburg, built a castle on a hill overlooking the Lahn, near the present town of Nassau. Drutwin's descendant Walram (d. 1 198) took the title of count of Nassau, and placed bis lands under the immediate suzerainty of the German king; previously he had been a vassal of the arch- bishop of Trier. Then in 1255 Walram's grandsons, Walram and Otto, divided between them their paternal inheritance, which had been steadily increasing in size. Walram took the part of Nassau lying on the left bank of the Lahn and made Wiesbaden his residence; Otto took the part on the right bank of the river and his capital was Siegen. The brothers thus founded the two branches of the house of Nassau, which have flourished to the present time. The fortunes of the Ottoman, or younger line, belong mainly to the history of the Netherlands. The family was soon divided into several branches, and in the isth century one of its members, NAST 251 Count Engelbert I. (d. 1442), obtained through marriage lands in Holland. Of his two sons one took the Dutch, and the other the German possessions of the house, but these were united again in 1504 under the sway of John, count of Nassau-Dillenburg, the head of a branch of the family which, in consequence of a series of deaths, the last of which took place in 1561, was a few years later the sole representative of the descendants of Count Otto. John's son was Count William the Rich (d. 1559), and his grandson was the hero, William the Silent, who inherited the principality of Orange in 1544 and surrendered his prospective inheritance, in Nassau to his brother John (d. 1606). William and his descendants were called princes of Orange-Nassau, and the line became extinct when the English king William III. died in 1702. Meanwhile the descendants of Count John, the rulers of Nassau, were flourishing. They were divided into several branches, and in 1702 the head of one of these, John William Friso of Nassau-Dietz (d. 1711), whose ancestor had been made a prince of the Empire in 1654, inherited the title of prince of Orange and the lands of the English king in the Netherlands. A few years later in 1743 a number of deaths left John William's son, William, the sole representative of his family, and as such he ruled over the ancestral lands both in Nassau and in the Netherlands. In 1806, however, these were taken from a succeeding prince, William VI., because he refused to join the Confederation of the Rhine. Some of them were given in 1815 to the other main line of the family, the one descended from Count Walram (see below). In 1815 William VI. became king of the Netherlands as William I., and was compensated for this loss by the grant of parts of Luxemburg and the title of grand- duke. When in 1890 William's male line died out Luxemburg, like Nassau, passed to the descendants of Count Walram. In the female line he is now represented by the queen of the Netherlands. Adolph of Nassau, a son of Walram, the founder of the elder line of the house of Nassau, became German king in 1292, but was defeated and slain by his rival, Albert of Austria, in 1298. The territories of his descendants were partitioned several times, but these branch lines did not usually perpetuate them- selves beyond a few generations, and Walram's share of Nassau was again united in 1605 under Louis II. of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1626). Soon, however, the family was again divided; three branches were formed, those of Saarbriicken, Idstein and Weil- burg, the heads of the first two becoming princes of the Empire in 1688. Other partitions followed, but at the opening of the igth century only two lines were flourishing, those of Nassau- Usingen and Nassau-Weilburg. In 1801 Charles William, prince of Nassau-Usingen, was deprived by France of his lands on the left bank of the Rhine, but both he and Frederick William of Nassau-Weilburg, who suffered a similar loss, received ample compensation. In 1806 both Frederick William and Frederick Augustus, the brother and successor of Charles William, joined the Confederation of the Rhine and received from Napoleon the title of duke, but after the battle of Leipzig they threw in their lot with the allies, and in 1815 joined the German Con- federation. As a result of the changes of 1815 Frederick Augustus of Nassau-Usingen ceded some of his newly-acquired lands to Prussia, receiving in return the greater part of the German possessions of the Ottonian branch of the house of Nassau (see above). In March 1816 he died without sons and the whole of Nassau was united under the rule of Frederick William of Nassau-Weilburg as duke of Nassau. Already in 1814 Frederick William had granted a constitution to his subjects, which pro- vided for two representative chambers, and under his son William, who succeeded in 1816, the first landtag met in 1818. At once, however, it came into collision with the duke about the ducal domains, and 'these dissensions were not settled until 1836. In this year the duchy took an important step in the develop- ment of its material prosperity by joining the German Zollverein. In 1848 Duke Adolph, the son and successor of Duke William, was compelled to yield to the temper of the times and to grant a more liberal constitution to Nassau, but in the following years a series of reactionary measures reduced matters to their former unsatisfactory condition. The duke adhered stedfastly to his conservative principles, while his people showed their sympathies by electing one liberal landtag after another. In 1866 Adolph espoused the cause of Austria, sent his troops into the field and asked the landtag for money. This was refused, Adolph was soon a fugitive before the Prussian troops, and on the 3rd of October 1866 Nassau was formally incorporated with the kingdom of Prussia. The deposed duke entered in 1867 into a convention with Prussia by which he retained a few castles and received an indemnity of about £1,500,000 for renouncing his claim to Nassau. In 1890, on the extinction of the collateral line of his house, he became grand-duke of Luxemburg, and he died on the 1 7th of November 1905. The town of Nassau (Lat. Nasonga) on the right bank of the Lahn, 15 m. above Coblenz, is interesting as the birthplace of the Prussian statesman, Freiherr von Stein. Pop. (1905) 2238. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, while its main industries are brewing and mining. Near the town are the ruins of the castle of Stein, first mentioned in 1138, with a marble statue of Stein, while the ruins of the ancestral castle of the house of Nassau may also be seen. For the history of Nassau see Hennes, Geschichte der Grafen von Nassau bis 125$ (Cologne, 1843) ; von Schutz, Geschichte des Herzog- tums Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1853); von Witzleben, Genealogie und Geschichte der Furstenhauses Nassau (Stuttgart, 1855); F. W. T. Schliephake and K. Menzel, Geschichte von Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1865-1889); the Codex diplomaticus nassoicus, edited by K. Menzel and W. Sauer (1885-1887) ; and the Annalen des Vereins fur nassau- ische Altertumskunde und Geschichtsforschung (1827 fol.). NAST, THOMAS (1840-1902), American caricaturist, was born on the 27th of September 1840, in the military barracks of Landau, Germany, the son of a musician in the Ninth regiment Bavarian band. His mother took him to New York in 1846. He studied art there for about a year with Theodore Kaufmann and then at the school of the National Academy of Design. At the age of fifteen he became a draughtsman for Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper; three years afterwards for Harper's Weekly. In 1860 he went to England for the New York Illustrated News to depict the prize-fight between Heenan and Sayers, and then joined Garibaldi in Italy as artist for The Illustrated London News. His first serious work in caricature was the cartoon " Peace " in 1862, directed against those in the North who opposed the prosecution of the Civil War. This and his other cartoons during the Civil War and Reconstruction days were published in Harper's Weekly; they attracted great attention, and Nast was called by President Lincoln " our best recruiting sergeant." Even more able were Nast's cartoons against the Tweed Ring conspiracy in New York city; his caricature of Tweed being the means of the latter's identifica- tion and arrest at Vigo. In 1873, 1885 and 1887 Nast toured the United States as lecturer and sketch-artist, but with the advent of new methods and younger blood his vogue decreased. He had been an ardent Republican in his earlier years; had bitterly attacked President Johnson and his Reconstruction policy; had ridiculed Greeley's candidature, and had opposed inflation of the currency, notably with his famous " rag-baby " cartoons, but his advocacy of civil service reform and his distrust of Elaine forced him to become a Mugwump and in 1884 an open supporter of the Democratic party, from which in 1892 he re- turned to the Republican party and the support of Harrison. He had lost practically all of his earnings by the failure of Grant and Ward, and in May 1902 was appointed by President Roosevelt consul-general at Guayaquil, Ecuador, where he died on the 7th of December in the same year. He did some painting in oil and some book illustrations, but these were comparatively unimportant, and his fame rests on his caricatures and political cartoons. Nast introduced the donkey to typify the Democratic party, the elephant to typify the Republican party, and the tiger to typify Tammany Hall, and introduced into American cartoons the practice of modernizing scenes from Shakespeare for a political purpose. See A. B. Paine, Thomas Nast, his Period and his Pictures (New York, 1904). 252 NASTURTIUM— NATAL NASTURTIUM, or INDIAN CRESS, Tropaeolum majus, a perennial climber, native of Peru, but in cultivation treated as a hardy annual. It climbs by means of the long stalk of the peltate leaf which is sensitive to contact like a tendril. The irregular flowers have five sepals united at the base, the dorsal one produced into a spurred development of the axis; of the five petals the two upper are slightly different and stand rather apart from the lower three; the eight stamens are unequal and the pistil consists of three carpels which form a fleshy fruit separating into three one-seeded portions. The flowers are sometimes eaten in salads, and the leaves and young green fruits are pickled in vinegar as a substitute for capers. The pungency of the nasturtium officinale, the water-cress, gave it its name nasi-tortium, that which twists the nose. The plant should have a warm situation, and the soil should be light and well enriched; sow thinly early in April, either near a fence or wall, or in an open spot, where it will require stakes 6 to 8 ft. high. The dwarf form known as Tom Thumb (T. m. nanum), is an excellent bedding or border flower, growing about a foot high. Sow in April in the beds or borders; and again in May for a succession. Other fine annual Tropaeolums are T. Lobbianum with long spurred orange flowers and numerous varieties; and T. minus, a kind of miniature T. majus with yellow, scarlet and crimson varieties. The genus Tropaeolum, native of South America and Mexico, includes about 35 species of generally climbing annual and perennial herbs with orange, yellow, rarely purple or blue, irregular flowers, T. peregrinum is the well-known canary creeper. The flame nasturtium with brilliant scarlet blossoms is T. speciosum from Chile; it has tuberous roots, as have also such well-known perennials as T. polyphyllum, T. pentaphyllum. Of these T. speciosum should be grown in England in positions facing north; it flourishes in Scotland. NATAL, a maritime province of the Union of South Africa, situated nearly between 27° and 31° S., 29° and 33° E. It is bounded S.E. by the Indian Ocean, S.W. by the Cape province and Basutoland, N.W. by the Orange Free State province, N. and N.E. by the Transvaal and Portuguese East Africa. It has a coast line of 376 m.; its greatest length N. to S. in a direct line is 247 m.; its greatest breadth E. to W., also in a direct line, 200 m. Natal has an area of 35,371 sq. m., being nearly three- quarters the size of England. (For map see SOUTH AFRICA.) The province consists of two great divisions, namely Natal proper and Zululand (q.v.). Natal proper has a seaboard of 166 m. and an area of 24,910 sq. m., Zululand, in which is included Amatongaland, a seaboard of 210 m. and an area of 10,461 sq. m. It lies north-east of Natal. In this article the description of the physical features, &c. refers only to Natal proper. Physical Features. — The terrace formation of the land char- acteristic of other coast regions of South Africa prevails in Natal. The country may be likened to a steep and gigantic staircase leading to a broad and level land lying beyond its borders. The rocky barrier which shuts off this land is part of the Drakens- berg range. From the mountain sides flow many rivers which dash in magnificent waterfalls and through deep gorges to the . sea. Falling 8000 or more feet in little over 200 m., these streams are unnavigable. The south-eastern sides of the mountains are in part covered with heavy timber, while the semi-tropical luxuriance of the coast belt has earned for Natal the title of " the garden colony." The coast trends, in an almost unbroken line, from S.W.to N.E. It extends from the mouth of the Umtamvuna river (31° 4' S., 30° 12' E.), which separates Natal from the Cape, to the mouth. of the Tugela (29° 15' S., 31° 30' E.), which marks the frontier between Natal and Zululand. The only considerable indentation is at Durban, about two-thirds of the distance from the Umtam- vuna to the Tugela, where there is a wide and shallow bay, covering with its islands nearly 8 sq. m. The coast, though low and sandy in places, is for the most part rocky and dangerous. The warm Mozambique current sweeps down from the N.E., setting up a back drift close in shore. The southern entrance to Durban harbour is marked by a bold bluff, the Bluff of Natal, which is 250 ft. high and forested to the water's edge. Opposite the Bluff a low sandy spit called the Point forms the northern entrance to the harbour. North of Durban the coast belt, hitherto very narrow, widens out and becomes more flat. But the greater part of the coast region, which has an average depth of 15 m., is broken and rugged. Ranges of hills lead to the first plateau, which has an average elevation of 2000 ft. and is of ill-defined extent. Here the land loses its semi-tropical character and resembles more the plains of the Orange Free State and the ' Transvaal. The second plateau, reached by a steep ascent, has an elevation of from nearly 4000 to fully 5000 ft. It is an undulating plain, grass-covered, but for the most part without trees or bush. It continues to the foot of the Drakensberg range, the mountains rising towards the S.W., with almost perpendicular sides, 6000 to 7000 ft. above the country at their base. North- west, towards the Transvaal, the mountains are of lower elevation and more rounded contours. Mountains. — Although the division of the country into terraces separated by ranges of hills is clearly marked in various districts, as for instance between Durban and Colenso, the province is traversed by many secondary chains, as well as by spurs of the Drakensberg. The highest points of that range, and the highest land in Africa south of Kilimanjaro, lie within the borders of Natal. The Drakensberg (q.v.), from Majuba Hill on the N.W. to Bushman's Nek in the S.W., form the frontier of the province, the crest of the range being gener- ally within Natal. This is the case in the Mont-aux-Sources (11,170 ft.) and Cathkin Peak or Champagne Castle (10,357 ft-) ; the top of the third great height, Giant's Castle (9657 ft.), is in Basutoland, but its seaward slopes are in Natal. From Giant's Castle to Mont-aux- Sources, in which, forsaking their general direction, the Drakensberg run S.E. to N.W., the mountains attain an elevation of 10,000 to 1 1,000 ft., with few breaks in their face. North of Mont-aux-Sources the mountain ridge sinks to 8000 and less feet, and here are several passes leading into the Orange Free State. Laing's Nek is a pass into the Transvaal. The chief heights in Natal between Mont-aux- Sources and Laing's Nek are Tintwa (7500 ft.), Inkwelo (6808 ft.) and the flat-topped Majuba (7000 ft.). Spurs from the Drakensberg, at right angles to the main range, cross the plateaus. The most northern, which runs E. from Majuba to the Lebombo Mountains, coincides roughly with the northern frontier of Natal. It is one of the transverse chains connecting the eastern coast range with the higher terraces and goes under a variety of names, such as Elands Berg and Ingome Mountains. A second range, the Biggarsberg, starts from the Drakensberg near Mount Malani and goes E.S.E. to the junction of Mooi, Buffalo and Tugela rivers. This range con- tains, in Indumeni (7200 ft.), the highest mountain in Natal outside the main Drakensberg. A third range runs N.E. from Giant's Castle towards the Biggarsberg. It lies north of the Mooi river, and its most general name is Mooi River Heights. A fourth range also diverges from Giant's Castle and ramifies in various branches over a large tract of country, one branch running by Pietermaritzburg to the Berea hills overlooking Durban. The chief height in this fourth range is Spion Kop (7037 ft.), about 25 m. S.E. of Giant's Castle. This is not the Spion Kop rendered famous during the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. That Spion Kop, with Vaal Kranz and Pieter's Hills, are heights on the northern bank of the upper Tugela. Secondary ranges with heights of 5000 and more feet are numerous, whilst lofty isolated mountains rise from the plateaus. The greatest of these isolated masses is Mahwaqa (6834 ft.), in the south-west part of the country. Of many flat-topped hills the best known is the Table Mountain east of Pietermaritzburg. Rivers. — All the rivers of Natal not purely coast streams have their origin in the Drakensberg or its secondary ranges. The largest and longest, the Tugela, with the Buffalo, Mooi, Klip and other tributaries is treated separately. The Tugela basin drains the whole country north of a line drawn in a direct line east from Giant's Castle. The Umkomaas (" gatherer of waters ") rises in Giant's Castle and flows in a south-easterly course to the sea. Though it makes no large sweeps it has so tortuous a course that its length (some 200 m.) is twice that of the valley through which it flows. Its banks in its upper course are wild and picturesque, with occasional wide deep valleys, with climate and vegetation resembling the coast belt. The Umzimkulu river rises in Bamboo Castle, in the Drakens- berg, and, with bolder curves than the Umkomaas, runs in a course generally parallel with that stream S.E. to the sea, its mouth being about 40 m. south of that of the Umkomaas. The Ingwangwane rises in the Drakensberg south of the Umzimkulu, which it joins after a course of some 50 m. Below the junction the Umzimkulu forms for some distance the frontier between Natal and the Griqua- land East division of the Cape. The scenery along the river valley (120 m. long) is very striking, in turns rugged and desolate, verdant and smiling, with patches of dense forest and heights wooded to their summit. Port Shepstone is situated at the mouth of the river, which, like that of all others in Natal, is obstructed by a bar. As a NATAL 253 result of harbour works, however, a channel has been cleared and steamers can ascend the river for 6 m. The Pongola rises in the Transvaal in high ground N.E. of Wakker- stroom and flows E., forming, for the greater part of its course, the northern frontier of the province. After piercing the Lebombo Mountains, it turns N. and joins the Maputa, a river emptying into Delagoa Bay. The Umgeni, which rises in the Spion Kop hills some 30 m. S.E. of Giant's Castle, passes through the central part of Natal and reaches the sea 4 m. N. of Durban. It flows alternately through mountainous and pastoral country, and is known for two magnificent waterfalls, both within 12 m. of Pietermaritzburg. The upper fall is close to the village of Howick. Here the Umgeni leaps in a single sheet of water down a precipice over 350 ft. high, more than double the height of Niagara, forming, when the river is swollen by the rains, a spectacle of rare magnificence. Some 12 m. below are the Karkloof or Lower Falls, where in a series of beautiful cascades the water descends to the plain. Other rivers of Natal which rise in the spurs of the Drakensberg or in the higher terraces are the Umvoti, which runs south of the Tugela and gives its name to a county division, the Umlaas (which gives Duroan its main water supply, the Illovo, which traverse the country between the Umgeni and Umkomaas, and the Umtamvuna, noteworthy as forming the boundary between Natal and Pondoland. There are also seventeen distinct coast streams in the colony. [Geology.' — The general geological structure of Natal and Zululand is simple. It consists of a series of plateaus formed of sedimentary rocks which mainly belong to three formations of widely separated ages, and which rest on a platform of granitic and metamorphic rocks. The geological formations represented include : — Post-Cretaceous and Recent Cretaceous U. Karroo L. Karroo Cape System Littoral of Zululand. fPlateau Basalts. . -i Cave Sandstone. [Red Beds, f Stormberg Series. J Beaufort Series. ' | Ecca Series. l_Ecca Glacial Series (Dwyka Conglomerate). Table Mountain Sandstone Series. ("Quartzites, Conglomerates and Shales of Prp Canp Rrvto Nkandhla, Umfolosi river, e-cape Kocks 1 Gneisses, Schists, Marbles, Granites (Swazi- [ land Series). Pre-Cape Rocks. — The granites and schists occur in close associa- tion. The series covers considerable areas in the lowest parts of the valleys and near the coast. The widest areas are in Zululand. In the Umzimkulu river and in the Tugela river below its junction with the Buffalo, metamorphic limestones are associated with schists, gneisses and granites. A group of highly inclined quartzites, altered con- glomerates and iasperoid rocks which crop out on the Umhlatuzi river, between Melmoth and Nkandhla and on the White Umfolosi river above Ulundi Plains, is considered by Anderson to represent some portion of the Lo*er Witwatersrand series. The conglomerates are true " banket " and are auriferous, but the gold has not been met with in payable quantities. Table Mountain Sandstone Series. — This rests unconformably on the pre-Cape rocks. Traced northwards, the series becomes thinner and finally dies out. As a rule denudation, which has acted on a magnificent scale, has removed all but a few hundred feet of the basement beds. The maximum thickness of 2000 ft. occurs near Melmoth. The beds are usually thin false-bedded sandstones with an almost complete absence of shales. A conglomerate at the base contains traces of gold. Griesbach mentions the occurrence of some small bivalves in the shales of Greytown, but Anderson failed to find any fossils. Ecca Glacial Series. — A great unconformity separates the Table Mountain and Ecca series. In the Cape this gap is represented by the Witteberg and Bokkeveld series. The Dwyka conglomerate rarely attains any great thickness though forming wide outcrops. It is usua'.ly a hard compact rock containing striated stones. The Umgeni quarries, where the rock is used for road-metal, furnish the best exposures. Ecca Series. — With the Beaufort series this occupies over two- thirds of the western portion of the province and has wide outcrops in Zululand and in the Vryheid districts. The Ecca shales contain some of the best coals of South Africa, but the seams contain much unmarketable coal. Around Dundee and Newcastle the coals are bituminous. In Zululand they are chiefly anthracitic. The fossils include several species of Clossopteris among them: Glossopteris 1 See C. L. Griesbach, " On the Geology of Natal in South Africa," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvii. pp. 53-72 (1871); P. C. Suther- land, " Notes on an Ancient Boulder Clay of Natal," Quart. Journ. Geol Soc. vol. xxvi. pp. 514-517 (1870); W. Anderson, Reports, Geol. Survey, Natal and Zululand (Pietermaritzburg, 1901 ; London, 1904); and "Science in South Africa," Handbook, Brit. Assoc. pp. 260-272 (Cape Town, 1905). browniana var indica; Bunb. Phyttotheca Zeilleri eth. fil.; Estheria Greyii, Jones, indicating a Permo-Carboniferous age. Beaufort Series. — The Ecca series graduates upwards into the highly coloured sandstones and shales of the Beaufort series. Fossil reptilian remains, chiefly Dicynodon, are abundant. Stormberg Series. — This consists of sandstones and shales with thin seams of coal. The chief outcrops occur around Biggarsberg and along the upper slopes of the Drakensberg. The fossil flora — Thinn- feldia odontopteroides, Morr. and a Pterophyllum — indicate a Rhaetic age. No reptilian remains have been found. Upper Karroo. — The Red beds and Cave sandstones occur along the eastern flanks of the Drakensberg. Cretaceous. — Deposits of this age are confined to the littoral. They are exceedingly prolific in fossils which prove them to be of Upper Cretaceous age. A long list of fossils has been obtained from Umkivelane Hill, Zululand. W.G.*] Climate. — With a rise in level (not reckoning the mountain tops) of 5500 ft. in a distance of 170 m., Natal possesses several varieties of climate but is nowhere unhealthy. The climate is comparable to that of north Italy. The valleys and coast belt, though practically free from malarial fever, are hot and humid, and fires m dwelling houses are seldom required even in the coolest months; the lower plateaus are cool and the air dry; the uplands are bracing and often very cold, with snow on the ground in winter. The year is divided into two seasons, summer, which begins in October and ends in March, and winter, which fills up the rest of the year. Summer is the rainy season, and May, June and July the driest months of the year. The mean temperature at Durban, records taken at 260 ft. above the sea, is 70° F., varying from 42° in winter to 98° in summer. The average summer humidity is 76%, that of winter 74 %. At Pietermaritzburg, 41 m. inland and 2200 ft. above the sea, the temperature is about 64°. In the uplands the heat of summer is often greater than on the coast, but the air is less humid and the nights are generally cool. Both the humidity and the temperature are increased by the great mass of water, the Mozambique current, flowing south from the equatorial regions. At Durban the annual rainfall is about 40 in., at Pietermaritzburg 38. The average for the province is believed to be about 30 in. In 1893, the year of highest recorded rainfall, 70 in. fell on the coast districts. Thunderstorms, averaging nearly one hundred in the year, and violent hailstorms, occur in summer, being most severe in the interior. The storms serve to modify the intense heat, though the lightning and hail cause considerable damage. The prevailing winds on the coast are north-east, warm and humid, and south-west, cool and bracing, though in summer the south-west wind brings rain. Inland, chiefly in early summer, a hot dry wind, often accompanied by a dust storm, blows from the north. These winds, which blow on an average twenty-five days in the year, seldom reach the coast and are generally followed by rain. Inhabitants of Natal are practically exempt from chest diseases. Flora. — Botanically, Natal is divided into three zones: (i) the coast belt, extending from the sea inland to heights of 1500 ft., and in some cases to 1800 and 2000 ft.; (2) the midland region, which rises to 4000 ft.; (3) the upper regions. In these zones the flora varies from sub-tropical to sub-alpine. The heaths and pro- teads common at the Cape peninsula, in Basutoland and other parts of South Africa, are rare in Natal, but almost any species of the flora of semi-tropical and temperatecountries introduced attains perfection. The trees and plants characteristic of each zone are not always confined to that zone, but in several instances, when common to the coast belt and the midlands, their character alters according to the elevation of the land. The dense bush or jungle of evergreen trees, climbers and flowering shrubs, which up to the middle of the loth century covered the greater part of the coast belt, has largely dis- appeared. There are still, however, in the coast belt woods of leguminous evergreens bearing bright-coloured flowers. The trees in these woods are generally from 20 to 50 ft. in height and include the knob-thorn, water-boom, kafir-boom (with brilliant scarlet flowers), the Cape chestnut and milkwoods (Mimusops). But the most striking of the coast-belt flora are the tropical forms — the palm, mangrove, wild banana (Strelitzia augusta). tree-ferns, tree euphorbia, candelabra spurge and Caput medusae. Of palms there are two varieties, the ilala (Hyphaene crinita), found only by the sea shore and a mile or two inland, and the isundu (Phoenix reclinata), more widespread and found at heights up to 2000 ft. or even higher. The amatungulu or Natal plum, found chiefly near the sea, is one of the few wild plants with edible fruit. Its leaves are of a glossy dark green, its- flower white and star-shaped and its fruit resembles the plum. Other wild fruits are the so-called Cape gooseberry (not native to Natal) and the kaw apple or Dingaan apricot, which grows on a species of ebony tree. The midland region is characterized by grass lands (the Natal grasses are long and coarse) and by considerable areas of flat-topped thorn bush mimosa. The bush is not as a rule dense, nor is it of any great height. A tree peculiar to this, zone is the Alberta magna. It has dull pink flowers, succeeded by seed vessels, each of which is crowned by two scarlet-coloured leafy lobes. A grass belt separates the thorn bush from the districts carrying heavy timber, found mainly in the upland zone, along the sides of the mountains ex- posed to the rains and in kloofs. The indigenous timber trees are 254 NATAL principally the yellow wood (Podocarpus) , sneezewood (Pteroxylon utile), stinkwood (Oreodaphne bullata), black ironwood (Olea lauri- folia), white ironwood ( Vepris lanceolaia) , and umtomboti (Exoecaria africana) ; all are very useful woods, and the yellow wood, sneeze- wood, stinkwood and ironwood when polished have grain and colour equal to maple, walnut and ebony. The " rooibesje," red pear and milkwood trees are used for boatbuilding. The Australian Eucalyptus and Casuarina in great variety, and many other imported trees, including syringas, wattles, acacias, willows, pines, cypress, cork and oak all thrive when properly planted and protected from grass fires. The black wattle has been extensively planted and flourishes at elevations of from 1000 to 3000 ft. Its bark forms a valuable article of commerce. Flowers which bloom in the early spring are abundant, especially on the edges of forests. Among those found throughout the country are the Dierama pendula, the orchid and the " everlasting." As a rule flowers common to all zones are on the coast smaller and with paler colours than they are in the midlands. Aloes are common; in part of the midland zone they form when in bloom with abundance of orange and scarlet flowers a most picturesque sight. Of Cyca- daceae the Stangeria paradoxa is peculiar to Natal. There is but one cactus indigenous to Natal; it is found hanging from perpen- dicular rocks in the midlands. There are, however, several species of euphorbia of the miscalled cacti. Climbing plants with gorgeous flowers are common, and there are numerous species of Compositae and about a hundred cinchonaceous plants. Bulbous plants are also very numerous. The most common are the Natal lily with pink and white ribbed bells, the fire-lily, with flame-coloured blos- soms, ixias, gladiolas, the Ifafa lily, with fuchsia-like clusters, and the arum lily. A conspicuous veld plant is the orange and crimson leonotis, growing 6 ft. high. Geraniums are somewhat scarce. Fern life is abundant; 126 species are indigenous, two being tree-ferns. One of these, Cyathea dregei, found in moist places and open land, has a stem 20 ft. high; the stem of the other, Hemitelia capensis, sometimes reaches 30 ft. The ferns are most common in the midland zone and in the heavy timber forests. Sixty different species have been identified in one valley not more than I m. long and about 100 yds. in breadth. Among fruit trees, besides the wild fruits already mentioned, are the pineapple, mango, papua, guava, grena- dilla, rose apple, custard apple, soursop, loquat, naartje, shaddock and citrous fruits. Fauna. — The larger animals which abounded in Natal in the first half of the igth century have been exterminated or driven out of the country. This fate has overtaken the elephant, giraffe, the buffalo, quagga, gnu, blesbok, gemsbok and ostrich. If the Vryheid district be excluded, the lion and rhinoceros may be added to this list; and the Vryheid district belongs geographically to Zululand. Hip- popotami are still found in the Umgeni river and crocodiles in several of the coast streams. Leopards and panthers are found in thickly wooded kloofs. Hyenas, jackals, wild pig, polecats and wild dogs (Canis pictus) of different species are still found in or about bush jungles and forest clumps; elands (Antilope areas) are preserved on some estates, and there are at least ten distinct species of antelope (hartebeest, bushbok, duiker, rietbok, rhebok, rovibok, blauwbok, &c.). In the Vryheid district the kudu, blue wildebeest, waterbuck, reedbuck, impala, steinbok and klipspringer are also found. Several of these species are now preserved. Ant-eaters (Orycteropus capensis) , porcupines, weasels, squirrels, rock rabbits, hares and cane rats are common in different localities. Baboons (Cynocephalus porcarius) and monkeys of different kinds frequent the mountains and rocky kloofs and bush and timber lands. The birds of Natal1 are of many species; some have beautiful plumage, but none of them, with the exception of the canary, are to be considered as songsters. Among the larger birds are cranes, herons, the ibis, storks, eagles, vultures, falcons, hawks, kites, owls, the secretary birds, pelicans, flamingoes, wild duck and geese, gulls, and of game birds, the paauw, koraan, pheasant, partridge, guinea fowl and quail. The other birds include parrots, toucans, gaudily coloured cuckoos, lories, swallows, shrikes, sun-birds, kingfishers, weavers, finches, wild pigeons and crows. The otter is found in some of the rivers, which are also fre- quented, near their mouths, by turtles. These last are also found in the coast lagoons and sometimes are of great size. Iguanas, 4 and 5 ft. long, are found on the wooded banks of the rivers; small lizards and chameleons are common, and there are several varieties of tortoise. Of snakes there are about forty distinct species or varieties. The most dreaded by the natives are called " imamba," of which there are at least eight different kinds; these snakes elevate and throw themselves forward, and have been known to pursue a horse- man. One sort of imamba, named by the natives indhlondhlt >," is crested, and its body is of a bright flame colour. The sluggish puff-adder (Clotho arietans) is common and very dangerous. A hooded snake (Naja haemachates) , the imfezi of the natives, is dangerous, and spits or ejects its poison; besides this there are a few other varieties of the cobra species. The largest of the serpent tribe, however, is the python (Hortulia natalensis), called inhlwati by the natives; its usual haunts are by streams amongst rocky boulders and in jungles, and instances are recorded of its strangling 1 See R. B. and J. D. Woodward, Natal Birds (Maritzburg, 1899). and crushing adult natives. It is common in the coast districts, and is sometimes 20 ft. long. Insects abound in great numbers, the most troublesome and destructive being the tick (Ixodes natal- ensis), which infests the pasturage, and the white ant (Termes mordax). Occasionally vast armies of locusts or caterpillars advance over large tracts of country, devouring all vegetation in their line of march. The fish moth, a steel-grey slimy active fish-shaped insect, is found in every house and is very destructive. Fish of excellent quality and in great quantities abound on the coast. They include shad, rock cod, mackerel, mullet, bream and soles; sharks, stingrays, cuttlefish and the octopus are also common in the waters off the coast of Natal. Prawns, crayfish and oysters are also ob- tainable, and turtle (Chelonia mydas) are frequently captured. Freshwater scale-fish are mostly full of bones, but fine eels and barbel are plentiful in the rivers. Trout have been introduced into some of the higher reaches of the rivers. Inhabitants. — At the census of 1904 the population of the province, including Zululand, was 1,108, 754.2 Of this total 8-8%, or 97,109, were Europeans, 9%, or 100,918, Asiatics and the rest natives of South Africa, mainly of Zulu-Kaffir stock. Of the 824,063 natives, 203,373 lived in Zululand. The white and Asiatic population nearly doubled in the thirteen years since the previous census, allowance being made for the Utrecht and Vryheid districts, which in 1891 formed part of the Transvaal. Of the total population 985,167 live in rural areas, the average density for the whole country being 31-34 per sq. m. The white population is divided into 56,758 males and 40,351 females. Of the white inhabitants the great majority are British. Some 12,500 are of Dutch extraction; these live chiefly in the districts of Utrecht and Vryheid. There are also about 4500 Natalians of German extraction, settled mainly in the New Hanover and Umzimkulu districts. The Asiatics at the 1004 census were divided into 63,497 males and 37,421 females. They include a few high caste Indians, Arabs and Chinese, but the great majority are Indian coolies. The Asiatics are mainly congregated in the coast districts between the Umzimkulu and Tugela rivers. In this region (which includes Durban) the Asiatic population was 61,854. In none of the inland districts did the Asiatic inhabitants number 2000. The coolies are employed chiefly on the sugar, coffee, cotton and other plantations, a small proportion being employed in the coal-mines. The native inhabitants of Natal proper were almost exter- minated by the Zulus in the early years of the I9th century. Before that period the natives of what is now Natal proper were estimated to number about 100,000. In 1838 when the Zulu power was first checked the natives had been reduced to about 10,000. The stoppage of intertribal wars by the British, aided by a great influx of refugees from Zululand, led to a rapid increase of the population. With the exception of a few. Bushmen, who cling to the slopes of the Drakensberg, all the natives are of Bantu stock. Before the Zulu devastations the natives belonged to the Ama-Xosa branch of the Kaffirs and are said to have been divided into ninety-four different tribes; to-day all the tribes have a large admixture of Zulu blood (see KAFFIRS, ZULULAND and BANTU LANGUAGES). The Natal natives have preserved their tribal organization to a considerable extent. Nearly 50% live in special reserves or locations, the area set apart for native occupation being about 4000 sq. m. exclusive of Zululand. Most of the remainder are employed on or live upon farms owned by whites, paying annual rents of from £ i to £5 or more. There were, however, in 1004, 69,746 male natives and 10,232 female natives in domestic service. Of the tribes who were in Natal before the Zulu invasion about 1812, the two largest are the Abatembu (who are in five main divisions and number about 30,000) and the Amakwabe (seven divisions and about 20,000 people). Other large tribes are the Amanyuswa (ten divisions — 38,000 people), the Amakunu (three divisions — 26,000 people), and the Amabomvu (five divisions — 25,000 people). The three last tribes are among those which sought refuge in Natal from Zulu persecution, before the establishment of British rule in 1843. The number of half-castes is remarkably small, at the census of 1904 the number of " mixed and others," which 2 The following is the official estimate of the population on the 3ist of December 1908: Europeans 91,443, natives 908,264 (in- cluding 7386 " mixed and others "), Asiatics 116,679; total 1 ,206,386. NATAL 255 includes Griquas and Hottentots and non-aboriginal negroes, was only 6686. Chief Towns. — The seat of the provincial government is Pieter- maritzburg (g.t>.). commonly called Maritzburg (or P.M.B.), with a population (1904) of 31,199. It is 71 m. by rail N.N.W. of Durban (- reason the importance of maintaining the authority of * the colonial administration at a critical period, and the con- stitutional question involved in the interference by the imperial authorities in the domestic affairs of a self-governing colony. The action of the British cabinet caused both astonishment and indignation throughout South Africa and in the other self- governing states of the empire. After a day's delay, during which Sir Henry McCallum reiterated his concurrence, already made known in London, in the justice of the sentence passed on the natives, Lord Elgin gave way (March 30). The Natal ministry thereupon remained in office. The guilty natives were shot on the and of April.1 It was at this time that Bambaata, a chief in the Greytown district who had been deposed for misconduct, kidnapped the regent appointed in his stead. He was pursued and escaped to Zululand, -where he received considerable help. He was killed in battle in June, and by the close of July the rebellion was at an end. As has been stated, it was ostensibly attributable to the poll-tax, but the causes were more deep- seated. Though somewhat obscure they may be found in the 1 Subsequently three other natives, after trial by the supreme court, were condemned and executed for their share in the Byrne- town murders. 264 NATAL growing sense of power and solidarity among all the Kaffir tribes of South Africa — a sense which gave force to the " Ethio- pian movement," which, ecclesiastical in origin, was political in its development. There were moreover special local causes such as undoubted defects in the Natal administration.1 Those Africans whose " nationalism " was greatest looked to Dinizulu as their leader, and he was accused by many colonists of having incited the rebellion. Dinizulu protested his loyalty to the British, nor was it likely that he viewed with approval the action of Bambaata, a comparatively unimportant and meddlesome chief. As time went on, however, the Natal government, alarmed at a series of murders of whites in Zululand and at the evidences of continued unrest among the natives, became con- vinced that Dinizulu was implicated in the rebellious movement. When a young man, in 1889, he had been convicted of high treason and had been exiled, but afterwards (in 1897) allowed to return. Now a force under Sir Duncan McKenzie entered Zululand. Thereupon Dinizulu surrendered (December 1907) without opposition, and was removed to Maritzburg. His trial was delayed until November 1908, and it was not until March 1909 that judgment was given, the court finding him guilty only on the minor charge of harbouring rebels. Meantime, in February 1908, the governor — Sir Matthew Nathan, who had succeeded Sir Henry McCallum in August 1907 — had made a tour in Zululand, on which occasion some 1500 of the prisoners taken in the rebellion of 1906 were released. The intercolonial commission had dealt with the native question as it affected South Africa as a whole; it was felt that Native a more l°cal investigation was needed, and in August Affairs' 1906 a strong commission was appointed to inquire Com' into the condition of the Natal natives. The general °"' election which was held in the.following month turned on native policy and on the measures necessary to meet the commercial depression. The election, which witnessed the return of four Labour members, 'resulted in a ministerial majority of a somewhat heterogeneous character, and in November 1906 Mr Smythe resigned, being succeeded by Mr F. R. Moor, who in his election campaign had criticized the Smythe ministry for their financial proposals and for the " theatrical " manner in which they had conducted their conflict with the home govern- ment. Mr Moor remained premier until the office was abolished by the establishment of the Union of South Africa. In August 1907 the report of the Native Affairs' Commission was published. The commission declared that the chasm between the native and white races had been broadening for years and that the efforts of the administration — especially since the grant of responsible government — to reconcile the Kaffirs to the changed conditions of rule and policy and to convert them into an element of strength had been ineffective. It was not sufficient to secure them, as the government had done, peace and ample means of livelihood. The commission among other proposals for a more liberal and sympathetic native policy urged the creation of a native advisory Board entrusted with very wide powers. " Per- sonal rule," they declared, " supplies the keynote of successful native control " — a statement amply borne out by the influence over the natives exercised by Sir T. Shepstone. The unrest in Zululand delayed action being taken on the commission's report. But in 1909 an act was passed which placed native affairs in the hands of four district commissioners, gave to the minister for native affairs direct executive authority and created a council for native affairs on which non-official members had seats. While the district commissioners were intended to keep in close touch with the natives, the council was to act as a " deliberative, consultative and advisory body." Concurrently with the efforts made to reorganize their native policy the colony also endeavoured to deal with the Asiatic question. The rapid growth of the Indian population from about 1890 caused much disquiet among the majority of the white inhabitants, who viewed with especial anxiety the activities 1 The causes, both local and general, are set forth in a despatch by the governor of the 2ist of June 1906 and printed in the Blue Book, Cd. 3247. of the " free," i.e. unindentured Indians. An act of 1895, which did not become effective until 1901, imposed an annual tax of £3 on time-expired Indians who remained in the colony and did not reindenture. In 1897 an Indian Immigration Restriction Act was passed with the Indians. object of protecting European traders; in 1903 another Immigration Restriction Act among other things, per- mitted the exclusion of all would-be immigrants unable to write in the characters of some European language. Under this act thousands of Asiatics were refused permission to land. In 1906 municipal disabilities were imposed upon Asiatics, and in 1907 a Dealers' Licences Act was passed with the object, and effect, of restricting the trading operations of Indians. In 1908 the government introduced a bill to provide for the cessation of Indian emigration at the end of three years; it was not pro- ceeded with, but a strong commission was appointed to inquire into the whole subject. This commission reported in 1909, its general conclusion being that in the interests of Natal the importation of indentured Indian labour should not be dis- continued. For sugar, tea and wattle growing, farming, coal- mining and other industries indentured Indian labour appeared to be essential. But the evidence was practically unanimous that the Indian was undesirable in Natal other than as a labourer and the commission recommended compulsory repatriation. While desirous that steps should be taken to prevent an increase in the number of free Asiatic colonists, the commission pointed out that there were in Natal over 60,000 " free " Indians whose rights could not be interfered with by legislation dealing with the further importation of coolies. But these Indians by reindentur- ing might come under the operation of the repatriation proposal. Nothing further was done in Natal up to the establishment of the Union of South Africa, when all questions specially or differentially affecting Asiatics were withdrawn from the com- petence of the provincial authorities. Not long after the conclusion of the war of 1899-1902 the close commercial relations between the Transvaal and Natal led to suggestions for a union of the two colonies, but these suggestions were not seriously entertained. The menTtor*' divergent interests of the various colonies threatened union. indeed a tariff and railway war when the Customs Convention (provisionally renewed in March 1906) should expire in 1908. But at the close of 1906 the Cape ministry formally reopened the question of federation, and at a railway con- ference held in Pretoria in May 1908 the Natal delegates agreed to a motion affirming the desirability of the early union of the self-governing colonies. The movement for union rapidly gained strength, and a National Convention to consider the matter met in Durban in October 1908. In Natal, especially among the older colonists, who feared that in a united South Africa Natal interests would be overborne, the proposals for union were met with suspicion and opposition, and the Natal ministry felt bound to submit the question to the people. A referendum act was passed in April 1909, and in June following the electors by 11,121 votes to 3701 decided to join the Union. (See SOUTH AFRICA.) Natal was concerned not only with the political aspects of union, and with its natives and Indian problems, but had to safeguard its commercial interests and to deal with a revenue insufficient for its needs. In 1908 an Income Tax and a Land Tax Act was passed; the land tax being a halfpenny in the £ " on the aggregate unimproved value " — it brought in £30,000 in 1908-1909. Meantime it was agreed by the Cape, Transvaal and Natal governments that, subject to Natal entering the Union, its share of the Rand import trade should be 25% before and 30% after the establishment of the Union. Previously Natal had only 22 $% of the traffic, and this agreement led to a revival in trade. Moreover, the development of its coal-mines and agriculture was vigorously prosecuted, and in 1910 it was found possible to abolish both the Income Tax and Land Tax and yet have a surplus in revenue. The closing months of Natal's existence as a separate colony thus found her peaceful and prosperous. The governor, Sir Matthew Nathan, had NATAL— NATHANAEL 265 returned to England in December 1909, and Lord Methuen was governor from that time until the 3ist of May 1910. On that date the Union of South Africa was established, Natal becoming one of the original provinces of the Union. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — R. Russell, The Garden Colony. The Story of Natal and its Neighbours (London, 1910 ed.), a good general account ; H. Brooks (edited by R. J. Mann), Natal, a History and Description of the Colony, &c. (London, 1876); J. F. Ingram, Natalia, a Con- densed History of the Exploration and Colonization of Natal and Zuiuland (London, 1897); C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. iv. " South and East Africa " (Oxford, 1807), also general surveys. Twentieth- Century Impressions of Natal (London, 1906) deals with the peoples, commerce, industries and resources of the colony; the Census of the Colony of Natal, April 1904 (Maritzburg, 1905) contains a large amount of authoritative information; The Natal Almanac is a directory and yearly register published at Maritzburg. See also the official Statistical Year Book. For the native inhabitants, besides the works quoted under KAFFIRS, valuable information will be found in Native Customs, H.C. 292 (1881), the Report of the Native Affairs' Commission, 1900-190^, Cd. 3889 (1908); the Report of the South African Native Affairs' Commission, 1903-1905, Cd. 2399 (1905); and other parliamentary papers (consult The Colonial Office List, London, yearlv). For detailed historical study consult G. M. Theal, History of South Africa, 1834-1854 (London, 1893), with notes on early books on Natal. Among these the most valuable are : N. Isaacs, Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa . . . with a Sketch of Natal (2 vols., London, 1836); H. Cloete, Emigration of the Dutch Farmers from the Cape and their Settlement in Natal . . . (Cape Town, 1856), reprinted as The History of the Great Boer Trek (London, 1899), an authoritative record; J. C. Chase, Natal, a Reprint of all Authentic Notices, &c. (Grahamstown, 1843); W. C. Holden, History of the Colony of Natal (London, 1855); J. Bird, The Annals of Natal, 1495 to 1845 (2 vols., Maritzburg, 1888), a work of permanent value, consisting of official records, &c. ; Shepstone, Historic Sketch of Natal (1864). See also South Africa Handbooks, useful reprints from the paper South Africa (London, N.D. [1900 et seq.]); Martineau's Life of Sir Bartle Frere, the Autobiography of Sir Harry Smith, and Sir J. Robinson's A Lifetime in South Africa (London, 1901) ; George Union, or the First Years of an English Colony (London, 1876). Bishop A. H. Baynes's Handbooks of English Church Expansion. South Africa (London, N.D. [1908]) gives the story of the Colenso controversy and its results. For further historical works and for information on flora, fauna, climate, law, church, &c. see the bibliography under SOUTH AFRICA. (See also ZULULAND: Bibliography.) (F. R. C.) NATAL, a city and port of Brazil and capital of the state of Rio Grande do Norte, on the right bank of the Rio Potengy, or Rio Grande do Norte, about 2 m. above its mouth. Pop. of the municipality (1890) 13,725. Natal is the starting-point of the Natal and Nova Cruz railway, and is a port of call for coast- wise steamers, which usually anchor outside the bar. It is a stagnant, poorly built town of one-storeyed houses and mud- walled cabins, with few public edifices and business houses of a better type. The only industry of note is the manufacture of cotton. The exports are chiefly sugar and cotton. Natal was founded in 1597 as a military post to check an illicit trade in Brazil-wood. In 1633 it was occupied by the Dutch, who remained until 1654. It became the capital of a province in 1820. In early works it is sometimes termed Cidade dos Reis (City of the Kings). NATANZ, a minor province of Persia, situated in the hilly district between Isfahan and Kashan, and held in fief by the family of the Hissam es Saltaneh (Sultan Murad Mirza, d. 1882). It contains eighty-two villages and hamlets, has a revenue of about £4000, and a population of about 23,000. It is divided into four districts: Barzrud, Natanzrud, Tarkrud and Badrud. Natanz pears are famous throughout the country. The western part of the province is traversed from north to south by the old high-road between Kashan and Isfahan, with the well-known stations of Kuhrud (7140 ft.) and So (7560 ft.). This road was practically abandoned when the Indian government telegraph line, which ran along it, was removed to a road farther east in 1906. The capital of the little province is NATANZ, a large village with a population of about 3000, situated 69 m. north of Isfahan, at an elevation of 5670 ft. It has an old mosque, with a minaret 123 ft. in height, built in 1315. NATCHEZ, a city and the county-seat of Adams county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, about 100 m. S.W. of Jackson. Pop. (1890) 10,101, (1900) 12,210, of whom 7090 were negroes, (1910 census) 11,791. It is served by the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the New Orleans & North- Western and the Mississippi Central railways, and by steamboats on the Mississippi river. The city, which has an area of 2-19 sq. m., is mostly on a bluff that rises 200 ft. above the river, the wharfs and landings, and a few old buildings being the only reminders of what was before the Civil War the principal business section. Among the city's institutions are the Fisk Public Library, a charity hospital, two sanatoriums, three orphan asylums, Stanton College for girls (non-sectarian; opened in 1894 and lodged in the old Fisk mansion), St Joseph's College for girls, the Jefferson Military College (1802), 6 m. from the city, and Natchez College for negroes. The city has four public parks, three on the river front, and one, Memorial Park, in honour of Confederate dead, in the heart of the city. On a neighbouring bluff is a national cemetery. Just outside the city limits, at Gloster, the former estate of Winthrop Sargent, first governor of the Territory of Mississippi, are the graves of Sargent and S. S. Prentiss, who lived in Natchez for some years. In and near the city are many handsome old residences typical of ante-bellum Natchez, among them being: Monmouth, General Quitman's estate; Somerset and Oakland, long in the Chotard family; and The Briars, the home during girlhood of Varina Howell, the wife of Jefferson Davis. A Roman Catholic cathedral (1841), Trinity Protestant Episcopal Church (1825) and a Presbyterian church (1829) are the principal church buildings. The Prentiss and the Elk are the leading clubs. Mardi Gras is annually celebrated. The leading industries are the shipment of cotton (70,000 to 90,000 bales are handled annually) and the manufacture of cottonseed oil and cake — the first cottonseed-oil mill in the country was built here in 1834 — cotton goods, rope and yarns, lumber, brick, drugs and ice. Natchez was the first city in the state to own municipal water- works and sewage system. The city was named from the Natchez Indians who lived on its site when the country was first settled. In 1716 on the bluff Le Moyne de Bienville built Fort Rosalie for the protection of some French warehouses, and later the French demanded a neighbouring hill for another settlement. This offended the Natchez, and on the 28th of November 1729 they massacred the French and destroyed the fort, which was immediately rebuilt, and in 1 764 was handed over to the English in accordance with the treaty of Paris, and became Fort Panmure; in 1779 it was turned over to the Spanish, who held it until 1798, when they withdrew and United States troops occupied the place. Under Spanish rule Natchez was the seat of government of a large district, and from 1798 to 1802 and from 1817 to 1821 it was the capital of Mississippi. It was chartered as a city in 1803. On the 7th of May 1840 a large part of the city was destroyed by a tornado, but it was soon rebuilt, and at the outbreak of the Civil War was a place of considerable wealth and culture. For several years it was the home of General John Anthony Quitman (1799-1858). Natchez surrendered to Union forces during the Vicksburg campaigns, first on the I2th of May 1862, and again on the I3th of July 1863. On the 2nd of September 1862 the Union iron-clad " Essex," commanded by William David Porter, bombarded the city and put an end to the commercial importance of the river front section. NATHANAEL, a character in the New Testament, who appears in John i. 45 sqq. as one of the first disciples of Jesus. In John xxi. 2 he is described as belonging to Cana of Galilee. The account of his call reveals to us a man of a deeply spiritual and sincere nature. Otherwise we know nothing beyond the mention of his name as one of the seven to whom, after the Resurrection, Christ revealed himself at the sea of Tiberias (John xxi. 2). But the interest he has evoked is shown by the attempts to identify him with other New Testament characters. Of these the one which has found most favour sees in him the apostle Bartholomew (q.v.). The actual identification must however remain a matter of pure conjecture. Still less can be said for the attempts to find in Nathanael another name for the apostle Matthew, or for Matthias, or for Paul " the 266 NATHUBHOY, SIR M.— NATIONAL DEBT apostle of visions," or even for the writer of the Fourth Gospel himself. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the story of Nathanael's call see Archbishop Trench, Studies in the Gospels, No. 2, and on his character, J. H. Newman's Sermons for the Festivals of the Church, No. 27. NATHUBHOY, SIR MANGALDAS (1832-1890), Seth or head of the Kapol Bania caste, well known for their thrift and keen commercial instincts. He was born on the isth of October 1832, of a family whose ancestors emigrated from Diu to Bombay soon after Bombay came into British possession. His grandfather, Ramdas Manordas, amassed a considerable fortune, which, owing to the premature death of his father, came into the sole possession of Mangaldas at the age of eleven. He had to take charge of the business in early life, though he gave some time to English studies. On the death of his wife he established a dispensary at Kalyan in her memory and also a special female ward in connexion with the David Sassoon hospital in Poona. As a merchant Mangaldas was upright and successful. In social matters he stood forth as a reformer, and to him the change to election from hereditary succession to the headship of the caste is due. In 1862 he founded a fellowship in Bombay university to allow graduates to spend some years in Europe. A bequest in his will enabled the university to establish seven similar scholarships. He took keen interest in learning, and in such institutions as the Asiatic and geographical societies. In 1866 he was nominated to the legislative council and sat till 1874. In 1867 he revived the Bombay association, a political body, over which he presided for a time. In 1872 he was made C.S.I., and in 1875 the dignity of Knight Bachelor was conferred on him. Besides a large donation to the Indian Famine Fund, Sir Mangaldas is known to have expended £500,000 on charities. He died at Bombay on the gth of March 1890. NATICK, a township of S.E. Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the S.E. end of Cochituate Lake. Pop. (1890) 9118; (IQOO) 9488, of whom 1788 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9866. The area of the township is 1 2 -375sq.nl. The township's largest village, also named Natick, lying 18 m. W.S.W. of Boston, is served by the Boston & Albany railroad; it has the Walnut Hill preparatory school, the Leonard Morse hospital, and a public library, the Morse institute, which was given by Mary Ann Morse (1825-1862) and was built in 1873. In the village of South Natick is the Bacon Free Library (1880), in which is housed the Historical, Natural History and Library Society. In 1905 the factory product was valued at $3,453,094; the boots and shoes manufactured in 1005 were valued at $2,896,110 or 83-9% of the town's total, the output of brogans being especially important. Other distinctive manufactures are shirts and base-balls. Natick is the Indian name, signifying " our land,"tor " hilly land," of the site (originally part of Dedham) granted in 1650 to John Eliot, for the " praying " Indians. There was an Indian church in Natick, at what is now called South Natick or " Oldtown," from 1660 to 1716; and for some years the community was governed, in accordance with the eighteenth chapter of Exodus, by " rulers of tens," " rulers of fifties," and " rulers of hundreds." Until 1719 the Indians held the land in common. In 1735 the few Indians remaining were put under guardianship. The township owns a copy of Eliot's Indian Bible. An Eliot monument was erected in 1847 on the Indian burying-ground near the site of the Indian church, now occupied by a Unitarian church. Of the Eliot oaks, made famous by Longfellow's sonnet, one was cut down in 1842, the other still stands. Henry Wilson learned to make • shoes here, and in the presidential campaign in 1840 gained the sobriquet of the " Natick cobbler." By the colonial authorities Natick was considered as a " plantation " until the establishment of the church; in 1762 the parish (erected in 1745) became a district, and in 1781 this was incorporated as a town. See " Natick," by S. D. Hosmer, Daniel Wight and Austin Bacon, in vol. 2 of S. A. Drake's History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880) ; and Oliver N. Bacon, History of the Town of Natick (Boston, 1856). NATIONAL ANTHEMS OR HYMNS. The selection of some particular songs, words and music, as the formal expression of national patriotism, is a comparatively modern development of ceremonial usage. In Europe the chief national anthems are: The United Kingdom: " God save the king " (see below); France: " The Marseillaise," by Rouget de Lisle; Germany: Heil dir im Siegeskranz," words by Balthasar Gerhard Schumacher, music of " God save the King "; Switzerland: Rufst du, mein Vaterland," music of " God save the King "; Italy: the " Royal March " by G. Gabetti; Austria: " Gott erhalte unsern Kaiser," words by L. L. Haschka, music by Haydn; Hungary: " Isten aid meg a Magyart "; Belgium: "La Brabanconne," by F. Campenhout; Holland: " Wien Nierlansch "; Denmark: " Heil dir, dem Liebenden," words by H. Harries, music of " God save the King," and " King Kristian stod ved hojen mast," words by Ewald, music by Hartman; Sweden: " Ur Svenska hjertans"; Russia: " Bozhe Zaria chrany," words by J. J. Canas, music by D. Jenko; Rumania: " Traeasca Regale," words by V. Alexandri, music by E. A. Hiibsch; Spain: " Himno de Riego," music by Herta. In the United Slates, the " Star Spangled Banner " (1814; words by F.S. Key, music by J. S. Smith) and " Hail Columbia " (1798; words by Joseph Hopkinson, music by Fyles) share the duties of a national anthem, while the tune of " God save the King " is sung to words beginning " My country, 'tis of thee," by Samuel F. Smith (1808-1895). The most celebrated of all national anthems is the English " God save the King." which is said to have been first sung as his own composition by Henry Carey in 1740; and a version was assigned by W. Chappell (Popular Music) to the Harmonia Anglicana of 1742 or 1743, but no copy exists and this is now doubted. Words and music were printed in the Gentleman's Magazine for October 1745. There has been much controversy as to the authorship, which is complicated by the fact that earlier forms of the air and the words are recorded. Such are an " Ayre " of 1619, attributed to John Bull, who has long been credited with the origin of the anthem; the Scottish carol, " Remember, O thou man," in Ravenscroft's Melismala, 1611; the ballad " Franklin is fled away " (printed 1669; and a piece in Purcell's Choice Collection for the Harpsichord (1696). The words or part of them are also found in various forms from the 1 6th century. The question was discussed in Richard Clarke's Account of the National Anthem (1822), and has been reinvestigated by Dr W. H. Cummings in his God save the King (1902). Carey and Bull, in the general opinion of musical historians, divide the credit; but in his Minstrelsy of England (1901) Frank Kidson introduced a new claimant, James Oswald, a Scotsman who settled in London in 1742, and worked for John Simpson, the publisher of the early copies of God save the King', and who became chamber composer to George III. What appears to be certain is that 1745 is the earliest date assignable to the substantial national anthem as we know it, and that both words and music had been evolved out of earlier forms. Bull's is the earliest form of the air; Carey's claim to the re- modelling of the anthem rests on an unauthoritative tradition; and, on general probabilities, Oswald is a strong candidate. The tune was adopted by Germany and by Denmark before the end of the i8th century. NATIONAL DEBT. Details as to the recent figures of the national debts of individual countries are given under the heading of each country, and the reader is also referred to the article FINANCE. Here the subject is considered in its technical aspects — including the special character of the institution, the different classes of debt, the various methods of raising loans, interest, funding systems, comparative statistics of national debts and other points. National debt is so universal that it has been described as the first stage of a nation towards civilization. A nation, so far as its finances are concerned, may be regarded as a corporate body or even as an individual. Like the one or the other it may borrow money at rates of interest, and with securities, general or special, proportionate to its resources, credit and stability. But, while in this respect there are certain points of analogy between a state and an individual, there are important points of difference so far as the question of debt is concerned. A state, NATIONAL DEBT 267 for example, may be regarded as imperishable, and its debt as a permanent institution which it is not bound to liquidate at any definite period, the interest, unless specially stipulated, being thus of the nature of transferable permanent annuities. While an individual who borrows engages to pay interest to the lender personally, and to reimburse the entire debt by a certain date, a state may have an entirely different set of creditors every six months, and may make no stipulation whatever with regard to the principal. A state, moreover, is the sole judge of its own solvency, and is not only at liberty either to repudiate its debts or compound with its creditors, but even when perfectly solvent may materially alter the conditions on which it originally borrowed. These distinctions explain many of the peculiarities of national debts as contrasted with those of individuals — though a nation, like an individual, may by reckless bad faith utterly destroy its credit and exhaust its borrowing powers. A well-organized state ought to have within itself the means of meeting all its ordinary expenses; where this is not the case, either through insufficiency of resources or maladministration, and where borrowing is resorted to for what may be regarded as current expenses, a state imperils, not only its credit, but, when any crisis occurs, its very existence; in illustration of this we need only refer to the cases of Turkey in Europe and some of the states of Central and South America. Even for meeting emergencies it is not always inevitable that a state should incur debt; its ordinary resources, from taxation or from state property, may so exceed its ordinary expenses as to enable it to accumulate a fund for extraordinary contingencies. This, it would seem, was a method commonly adopted in ancient states. The Athenians, for example, amassed 10,000 talents in the interval between the Persian and the Peloponnesian wars, and the Lacedaemonians are said to have done the same. At Susa and Ecbatana Alexander found a great treasure which had been accumulated by Cyrus. In the early days of Rome the revenue from certain sources was accumulated as a sacred treasure in the temple of Saturn; and we know that when Pompey left Italy he made the mistake of leaving behind him the public treasury, which fell into the hands of Caesar. In later times, also, the more prudent emperors were in the habit of amassing a hoard. We find that the method of accumulating reserves prevailed among some of the early French kings, even down to the time of Henry IV. This system long prevailed in Prussia. Frederick II., when he ascended the throne, found in the treasury a sum of 8,700,000 thalers, and it is estimated that at his death he left behind him a hoard of from 60 to 70 million thalers. And similarly, in our own time, of the five milliards of indemnity paid by France as a result of the Franco-German War, 150 millions were set apart to recon- stitute the traditional war-treasury. The German empire, apart from the individual states which comprise it, had in 1882 a debt of about £24,000,000, while its invested funds amounted t° £37>39O>OO°, including a war-treasure of £6,000,000. The majority of economists disapprove of such an accumulation of funds by a state as a bad financial policy, maintaining that the remission of a proportionate amount of taxation would be much more for the real good of the nation. At the same time the possession of a moderate war-fund, it must be admitted, could not but give a state a great advantage in the case of a sudden war. In the case of England, apart from the private hoardings of a few sovereigns, there does not seem to have existed any deliberately accumulated public treasure; before the time of William and Mary English monarchs borrowed money occasion- ally from Jews and from the city of London, but emergencies were generally met by " benevolences " and increased imposts. All modern states, it may be said, have been compelled to have recourse to loans, either to meet war expenses, to carry out great public undertakings or to make up the recurrent deficits of a mismanaged revenue. Resources obtained in this way are what constitute national debt proper. Loans have been divided into forced and voluntary. Forced loans can, of course, only be raised within the bounds of the borrowing country; and, apart from the injustice which is sure to attend such an impost, it is always economically mischievous. The loans which the kings of England were wont to exact from the Jews were really of the character of forced loans, though the method has never been used in England in modern times so extensively as on the continent. There the sum sought to be obtained in this way has never been anything like realized. In 1793, for example, a loan of this class was imposed in France, on the basis of income; and of the milliard (francs) which it was sought to raise only 100 millions were realized. In Austria and Spain, also, recourse has been had at various times to forced loans, but invariably with unsatisfactory results. Other methods of a more or less compulsory character have been and are made use of in various states for obtaining money, which, as they involve the payment of interest, may be regarded as of the nature of loans; but the debt incurred by such methods is comparatively insignificant, and some of the methods adopted are peculiarly irritating and mischievous. On the other hand, it has occasionally been attempted to raise voluntary loans by appeals to a nation's patriotism; the method has been confined almost exclusively to France. After the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 appeals were thus made to the patriotism of French capitalists to buy 5% direct from the government at par, at a time when the French 5 % were selling at 80; but the results were quite insignificant. In short, the only economically sound method of meeting ex- penses which the ordinary resources of a state cannot meet is by borrowing in the open market on the most advantageous terms obtainable. On this normal method of borrowing, loans are divided into different categories, though there are really only two main classes, which may be designated perpetual and terminable. Borrowing in quasi-perpetuity has hitherto been the mode adopted by most states in the creation of the bulk of their debt. Not that any state ever borrows with the avowed intention of never paying off debts; but either no definite period for reimbursement is fixed, or the b'mit has been so extended as to be practically perpetual, or in actual practice the debt has been got rid of by the creation of another of equal amount under similar or slightly differing conditions as to interest. Of course a state is not bcund to retain any part of its debt as a perpetual burden; it is at liberty to liquidate whenever it suits its convenience. This quasi-perpetuity of debt in the case of a state in a sound financial condition involves no hardship upon its creditors, who may at any moment realize their invested capital by selling their titles as creditors in the open money market, it may be at the price they paid, or it may be a little below or a little above it, according to the state of the market at the time. Loans, again, contracted on the terminable principle are of various classes; the chief of these are (i) life annuities, (2) terminable annuities, (3) loans repayable by instalments at certain intervals, (4) loans repayable entirely at a fixed date. From the time of William III. life and terminable annuities have been a favourite mode in England either of borrowing money or of commuting, and thus gradually paying off, the existing funded debt. At first, and indeed until comparatively recent times, the system of life annuities resulted in serious loss to the country, owing to the calculation of the rate of annuity on too high a scale, a result arising from imperfect data on which to base estimates of the average duration of life. The system of life annuities was sometimes combined in England with that of perpetual annuities, or interest on the permanent debt — the life annuity forming a sort of additional inducement to lenders of limited means to invest their money. At one time the form of life annuities known as tontine was much in vogue both in England and France, the principle of the tontine being that the proceeds of the total amount invested by the contributors should be divided among the survivors, the last survivor receiving the whole interest or annuity. The results of this system were not, however, encouraging to the state. In England, at least, the terminable annuity has been a favourite mode of borrowing from the time of William III.; it has been generally conjoined with a low rate of permanent interest on the sum borrowed. Thus in 1700 the interest on the consolidated debt amounted to only £260,000, while the terminable annuities payable amounted to £308,407. In 1780 a loan of 12 millions was raised 268 NATIONAL DEBT at 4% at par, with the additional benefit of an annuity of £i, i6s. 3d. % for eighty years. Even so late as the Crimean War in 1855, a loan of 16 millions at 3% at par was contracted, the contributors receiving in addition an annuity of 143. 6d. % for thirty years. The third method of contracting terminable loans, that of gradual repayment or amortization within a certain limit of years, has been a favourite one among certain nations, and specially commends itself to those whose credit is at a low ebb. When the final term of repayment is fixed upon, a calculation is easily made as to how much is to be paid half-yearly until the expiry of the term, so that at the end the whole, principal and interest, will have been paid. At first, of course, the amount paid will largely represent interest, but, as at each half-yearly drawing of the numbers of the bonds to be finally paid off the principal will be gradually reduced, there will be more and more money set free from interest for the reduction of the actual debt. This method, as we have said, has its advantages, and when conjoined with stipulations as to liberty of conversion to debt bearing a lower rate of interest than that originally offered, and when the bonds are not issued at a figure much below par, might be the most satisfactory method of raising money for a state under certain emergencies. What is known as the " Morgan loan " of France in 1870 was contracted on such conditions. The last form of temporary loan,' that repayable in bulk at a fixed date, is one which, when the sum is of considerable amount, is apt to be attended with serious disadvantages. The repayment may have to be made at a time when a state may not be in a position to meet it, and so to keep faith with its creditors may have to borrow at a higher rate in order to pay their claims. It has, however, worked well in the United States, most of the debt of which has been contracted on the principle of optional payment at the end of a short period, say five years, and com- pulsory payment at the end of a longer period, say twenty years. Thus the loan of 515 millions of dollars contracted in 1862 was issued on this principle, at 6 %, and so with other loans between that year and 1868. In European states, however, the risks of embarrassment are too great to permit of the application of this method on an extensive scale; and for loans of great amount the methods most likely to yield satisfactory results are loans bearing quasi-perpetual interest, or those repayable by instalments on the basis of half-yearly drawings within a certain period. What are known as lottery loans are greatly favoured on the continent, either as an independent means of raising money, or as an adjunct to any of the methods referred to above. These must not be confounded with the lottery pure and simple, in which the contributors run the risk of losing the whole of their investment. The lottery loan has been found to work well for small sums, when the interest is but little below what it would have been in an ordinary loan, and when the percentage thus set aside to form prizes of varying amounts forms but a small fraction of the whole interest payable. The principle is that each contributor of such a losin has a greater or less chance of drawing a prize of varying amount, over and above the repayment of his capital with interest. What are known in England as exchequer bills and treasury bills may be regarded as loans payable at a fixed period of short duration, from three months upwards, and bearing very in- significant interest, even so low as \°/0. They are a useful means of raising money for immediate wants and for local loans, and form handy investments for capitalists who are reserving their funds for a special purpose. Exchequer bonds are simply a special form of the funded debt, to be paid off generally within a certain period of years. There are two principal methods of issuing or effecting a loan. Either the state may appeal directly to capitalists and invite sub- scriptions, or it may delegate the negotiation to one or more bankers. The former method has been occasionally followed in France and Russia, but in practice it has been found to be attended with so many disadvantages to the borrowing state or city that the best financial authorities consider it unsound. The great banking- houses have such a command over the money-market that it is difficult to keep even a direct loan out of their hands. The majority pf loans, therefore, are negotiated by one or more of these houses, and the name of Rothschild is familiar to every one in connexion with such transactions. By this method a borrowing state can assure itself of having the proceeds of the loan with the least possible delay and with the minimum of trouble. A loan may be issued at, above, or below par, though generally it is either at or below par — " par " being the normal or theoretical price of a single share in the loan, the sum which the borrowing government undertakes to pay back for each share on reimbursement, without discount or premium. Very generally, as an inducement to investors, a loan is offered at a greater or less discount, according to the credit of the borrowing government. Sometimes a state may offer a loan to the highest bidders; for example, the city of Auckland in 1875 invited sub- scriptions through the Bank of New Zealand to a loan of £100,000 at 6%; offers were made of six times the amount, but only those were accepted -which were at the rate of 98% or above. The rate of interest offered generally depends on the credit of the state issuing the loan. England, for example, would have no difficulty in raising any amount at 3 % or even less, while less stable states may have to pay 8 or 9%. The nominal percentage is by no means, however, always an index of the cost of a loan to a state, as the history of the debt of England disastrously shows. During the l8th century various expedients were employed, besides that of terminable annuities already referred to, to raise money for the great wars of the period, at an apparently low percentage. For example, from 3 to 5% would be offered for a loan, the actual amount of stock per cent, allotted being sometimes 107 J or even in; so that between 1776 and 1785, for the £91,763,842 actually borrowed by the government, £115,267,993 was to be paid back. In 1797 a loan of £1,620,000 was contracted, for every £100 of which actually subscribed, at 3%, the sum of £219 was allotted to the lender. In !793 a 3% loan of 4j millions was offered at the price of £72 %, the government thus making itself liable for £6,250,000. Greatly owing to this reckless method the debt of Great Britain in 1815 amounted to over 900 millions. France in this respect has been quite as extravagant as England; many of her loans during the igth century were issued at from 52$ to 84%, one indeed (1848) so low as 45 % — as a rule with 5 % interest. The enormous and embarrassing increase of the French debt during the igth century was doubtless greatly due to this disastrous system. Nearly every European state and most of the Central and South American states have at one time or another aggravated their debts by this method of borrowing, and got themselves into difficulty with their creditors. Financiers almost unanimously maintain that in the long run it is much better for a state to borrow at high interest at or near par, than at an apparently low interest much below par. A state of even the highest rank may find itself in the midst of a crisis that will for a time shake its credit; but when the crisis is past and its credit revives it will be in a much more sound position with a high interest for a debt contracted at par than with a comparatively low interest on a debt much in excess of what it really received. If a state, for example, borrows at par at 6% when its credit is low, it may easily when again in a flourishing condition reduce the interest on its debt to 4 or even 3 %. The United States government actually did so with the debt it had to contract at the time of the Civil War. This method of reducing the burden of a debt is evidently no injustice to the creditors of a government, when used in a legitimate way. A state is at liberty at any time to pay off its debts, and, if it can borrow at 3% to pay off a 6% debt, it may with perfect justice offer its creditors the option of payment of the principal or of holding it at a reduced interest. Government debts are, however, sometimes reduced after a fashion by no means so legitimate as this. Other states have been even more unprincipled, and have got rid of their debts at one sweep by the simple method of repudiation. When a state has a variety of loans at varying rates of interest, it may consolidate them into a single debt at a uniform interest. For example, in 1751 several descriptions of English debt were con- solidated into one fund bearing a uniform interest of 3 %, an opera- tion which gave origin to the familiar term " consols " (" consoli- dated annuities "). In the early days of the English national debt, a special tax or fund was appropriated to the payment of the interest on each particular loan. This was the original meaning of " the funds," a term which has now come to signify the national debt generally. So also the origin of the term " funded " as applied to a debt which has been recognized as at least quasi-permanent, and for the payment of the interest on which regular provision is made. Unfunded or floating debt, on the other hand, means strictly loans for which no permanent provision requires to be made, which have been obtained for temporary purposes with the intention of paying them off within a brief period. Exchequer and treasury bills are included in this category, and such other moneys in the hands of a government as it may be required to reimburse at any moment. Where a government is the recipient of savings banks deposits, these may be included in its floating debt, and so also may the paper- money which has been issued so largely by some governments. A state with an excessive floating debt must be regarded as in a very critical financial condition. National debt, again, is divided into external and internal, accord- ing as the loans have been raised within or without the country — NATIONAL DEBT 269 some states, generally the smaller ones, having a considerable amount of exclusively internal debt, though it is obvious that the bulk of national debts are both external and internal. We referred above to various ways of reducing the burden of a debt, and also to methods of contracting loans by which within a certain period they are amortized or extinguished. Most states, however, are burdened with enormous quasi-permanent debts, the reduction or extinction of which gives ample scope for the financial skill of statesmen. A favourite method of accomplishing this is by the establishment of what is known as a sinking fund, formed by the setting aside of a certain amount of national revenue for the reduction of the principal of the debt. (J- S. K.) The following table shows the general state of the world's public indebtedness at the beginning of the 2oth century, divided according to the more important countries, the bracketed figures in black type indicating the position of the country referred to under each heading in the list. The figures are given by preference for the year 1900, as more representative, in a case like this, than for some later years; for the Boer War, as regards the United Kingdom, and also the Russo-Japanese War, intro- duced new debt and new considerations, hardly fair to the comparison, while this stands at the end of a long period of peace. The figures in every case are not to be supposed to be absolutely accurate; statistics of national debts differ, often remarkably, and it is practically impossible to give a perfectly satisfactory comparison, owing partly to difficulties of computing the exchange, partly to inaccurate accounts, and partly to the varieties of debt (reproductive or non-reproductive, &c.). Kingdom (756 millions) stood second to that of France (1000 millions), in 1900 it stood third to France and Russia; whereas in 1883 its weight per head of population was third, in 1900 it was eleventh; whereas in 1883 its annual charge stood second, in. 1 900 it stood fourth; and whereas the weight of the charge per head of population in 1883 was fifth, in 1900 it was eleventh. The indebtedness of the great British dependencies, on the other hand, had increased from 302 millions to 544 millions sterling, or by 242 millions; and the local (municipal) debt of Great Britain had risen from about ico millions to upwards of 300 millions. It is interesting to recall the history of the British national debt during the igth century. The debt at the close of the Napoleonic war (1816) was nearly 887 millions sterling, History and at the beginning of 1900 this debt had been of reduced to 621 millions,1 or a decrease of 266 millions — British notwithstanding interim additions of about 367 ***" millions, which made the gross reduction during that period 633 millions sterling, an amount actually larger than the whole (dead- weight2) debt at the end of the century. No country (except the United States, to a smaller amount) has ever redeemed its obligations on such a scale, and this was done while all other European countries of similar standing were piling up debt. This enormous reduction was effected at different rates of speed. Between 1817 and 1830, when what was known as The Principal Public Debts of the World, 1900. Country. Population. Total Debt. Per Head. Annual Charge. Per Head. THE UNITED KINGDOM 40,909,925 (3) £628,978,782 (11) £i5 7 6 (4) £23,216,657 (11) £o II 4 BRITISH DOMINIONS OVER SEA — India 230,000,000 (9) 210,323,937 (24) o 18 6 (11) 6,595-732 (23) 006 Australian States 3,707,905 (10) 195,324,717 (2 52 13 o (9) 7-595-074 (2) 210 New Zealand .... 815,820 (23 47,874,452 (1 58 12 o (22) 1,717,910 (1) 220 Canada 5,338,883 (21 53,254,689 (14 10 o o (21) 2,678,496 (13) o 10 o Cape Colony .... 1,527,224 (24 27,884,078 (8 18 5 o (23) 1,331.737 (6) o 17 5 Natal 902,365 (25 9,019,143 (15 IO O O (24) 350,204 (16) 079 France 38,517,975 (1 1,086,215,525 (4 28 4 o (1) 49,844,652 (4) i 5 ii Russia 129,211,113 (2) 656,000,000 (19 520 (2) 29,000,000 (18) 047 Austria 25,886,000 (6) 358,438,000 (12 13 16 ii (6) 14,067,000 (10) o ii 6 Hungary Italy ... . . 19,203,531 32,449,754 (11) 184,600,000 (4) 586,000,000 (16) 9 14 o (9) 18 o o (8) 11,977,640 (3) 27,000,000 (9) o 12 6 (7) o 16 7 United States of America . 76,303.387 (8) 292,216,265 (21) 3 15 6 (10) 6,709,026 (20) o i 9 Spain 18,089,500 (5) 433,283,066 (5 24 i 5 (5 ) 16,742,285 (5) o 18 2 Turkey 23,880,000 (13) 170,000,000 (18 700 (13 I 5-148,450 (19) 043 Egypt 9,734,000 (16) 103,372,000 (13 10 12 4 (15) 4.222,379 (15) 088 Prussia . 34,472,509 (7) 329,584,000 (17 976 (7) 13,923,170 (17) o 7 5 German Empire .... 56,345,000 (14) 118,554,789 (22 2 2 I (16) 3-794.461 (22) o i 4i Portugal 5,049,729 (12 177,192,795 (3) 35 o o (14) 4,434,243 (8) o 15 10 Holland 5,104,137 (18 96,561,287 (7) 18 18 o (20) 2,926,553 (12) o ii ij Belgium 6,744,000 (is 104,551,000 (10) 15 13 6 (17 3,320,404 (14) 099 Japan 43,759-577 (22 52,903,000 (23) I 4 2 (18 3,176,759 (21) o i 5 China 390,000,000 (20 55,000,000 (25) 030 (19 3,000,000 (24) 002 Argentina 4,400,000 (17) 103,000,000 (6) 23 12 o (12 6,301,419 (3) 187 Brazil 17,000,000 (19) 81,710,000 (20) 4 16 o The total indebtedness of the countries named in the table amounted to £6,311,017,478, and the total indebtedness of the world (i.e. including countries not here mentioned) for the year 1898 was computed by Lord Avebury (Journ. Roy. Slat. Soc. vol. briv. part i.) as £6,432,757,000, as against £5,097,910,000 in 1888. This compares (taking figures compiled by Mr Dudley Baxter in Journ. Roy. Stat.Soc., March 1874) with a total indebted- ness of 4680 millions sterling in 1874 and 1700 millions sterling in 1848. The United Kingdom had diminished its total debt since 1883 by 127 millions, the amount per head by £6, the annual charge by 6 millions, and the charge per head by 55. 8d. The United States debt was lower by nearly a hundred millions. Japan, Egypt and Brazil had sensibly improved their positions. But the following countries had increased their debts: France (by 86 millions), Russia (by some 240 millions), Italy (by 140 millions), Austria-Hungary (by 70 millions), Spain (by 190 millions), Prussia (by 227 millions), Portugal (by 80 millions), Holland (by 18 millions), Belgium (by 32 millions), and Argentina (by 73 millions). The result is that, whereas in 1883 the total debt of the United Pitt's sinking fund was in operation (depending upon the devotion of surplus income to the repayment of debt, but much complicated by the raising of fresh loans), a net reduction was made of £29,488,072 — an annual average of £2,268,313. From 1830 to 1876 the system of using surplus revenue — the so-called old sinking fund — for redeeming debt, was steadily applied, together with the creation of terminable annuities, by which definite blocks of debt were cancelled and the whole amount paid off in a term of years. During this period the debt was reduced by £85,175,782, an annual average of £1,851,647. In 1876 Sir Stafford Northcote's (Lord Iddesleigh's) new sinking fund came into operation, in addition to previous methods of redeeming debt. By this system a definite annual sum was set aside for the service of the debt, the difference between it and 1 Leaving out of account 8 millions of unfunded debt raised for the Boer War. 1 The " dead-weight " debt, or national debt proper, excludes what are treated in the public accounts as "other capital liabilities," the interest on which is not included in the fixed charge; but it is taken to include the new debt of all sorts raised in 1900, 1901 and 1902 for the Boer War. 270 the amount required for payment of interest forming a (new) sinking fund devoted to repayment of capital. This fixed charge was gradually reduced from about 29 millions to 26 millions in 1888, to 25 millions in 1890, and to 23 millions in 1899. The amount paid off during this period by means of old sinking fund, terminable annuities and new sinking fund, down to March 1900, was £155,238,639, or an annual average of £6,468,276. It will be observed that the burden of the debt incurred previously to 1817 has thus been borne very unequally by different ages of " posterity." While the generations immedi- ately succeeding the Napoleonic war paid off about £2,000,000 a year, the taxpayers between 1876 and 1900 paid at three times that rate. They did so largely without knowing it, since a large part of the amount was wrapped up in the terminable annuities; but it is very questionable justice that so large a proportion of the burden should have been imposed upon them. The great bulk of the funded national debt consists of what are known as " consols." This name dates from 1751, when nine different government annuities at 3% were consolidated into one, amounting to £9,137,821. These " consolidated annuities " formed the germ of what has since become the type of British government stock. At the same time some of the annuities at a higher rate of interest were combined and the interest reduced to 3%, and this stock was known as " reduced," the two 3% stocks remaining side by side, until in 1854 the 3j% government stock was also converted into 3%, under the style of "new threes." "Consols," "reduced" and "new threes" formed thenceforth a solid body of British 3% stock, until in 1888 the whole amount was converted (see Conversions below) by Mr (after- wards Lord) Goschen into 2j%. "Consols" were added to from time to time when fresh loans were needed: from 39 millions in 1771 they rose to 71 millions in 1781, to 101 millions in 1783, 278 millions in i&oi, 334 millions in 1811, and 400 millions in 1858; but in 1888 they had decreased, by redemptions, to £322,681,035. " Reduced " were also added to: from 17 millions in 1751 they rose to 164 millions in 1815, and then gradually NATIONAL DEBT Consols. amount more was practically locked up by being held by trustees, or by banks, insurance societies, &c. The savings banks deposits, increasing as they did by about £1,000,000 per month (owing partly to the raising in 1894 of the maximum limit), had to be invested in government securities; and the compulsory activity of the government as a buyer of consols, both on this account and also for sinking fund purposes (in order to obtain stock to redeem debt on the increased scale already indicated) operated as an abnormal cause for sending the price of consols high above par. Even at that figure (the average prices for consols being loij'j in 1894, 1065 in 1895, 119! in 1896, ii2j| in 1897, nojjj in 1898 and io6J— having fallen owing to war prospects — in 1899) it was difficult for the govern- ment brokers to obtain consols, and it was principally owing to this state of things that in 1899 Sir Michael Hicks-Beach reduced the fixed annual charge for the debt (and pro tanto the new sinking fund) from £25,000,000 to £23,000,000. It may be useful to give the figures for the British natipnal debt in 1902, after the disturbance due to the South African War. During the years 1900 and 1901 the new sinking fund was suspended, as well as the payments on the terminable annuity debt applicable to repayment of capital (except in so far as annuities to individuals were concerned) ; so that the debt was not reduced, as it would otherwise have been, by £4,547,000 in 1900 and by £4,681,000 in 1901. On the contrary, it was increased by fresh borrowings. Consols were raised (in 1901 and 1902) to the extent of £92,000,000; a " War Loan " of 2$% stock and bonds, redeemable in 1910, was raised (1900) to the amount of £30,000,000; 2j% exchequer bonds were raised (in 1900) to the amount of £24,000,000, and treasury bills (in 1899 and 1900), £13,000,000. The total war borrowing amounted accordingly to £159,000,000, raised at a discount of (£6,585,000) 4-14%. This includes the whole new borrowing in 1902, a portion of which was intended after the peace to be paid back in the current year; but for this no allowance can here be made. The accompanying table shows the totals for the " dead-weight debt " in 1900, 1901 and 1902, and, for convenience, also the " other capital liabilities." "Dead- weight Debt." Chief Cause of Difference. ' " Other Liabilities." 3ist March 1900 . 1901 . . „ 1902 . July 1902 . . £628,978,782 690,992,621 747,876,000 779,876,000 ( +" War Loan," £30,000,000 ] -t-Exch. Bonds, 24,000,000 ( -j-Treas. Bills, 5,000,000 + Consols, 60,000,000 -(-Consols, 32,000,000 £10,186,482 14,731,256 20,532,000 diminished to 102 millions in 1869, and to £68,912,433 in 1887, when they were converted with " consols " into the new consols (or " Goschens ") at 2$%, to be reduced to 2|% in 1003. The lowest price ever quoted for " consols " was 47! on 2oth September 1797, owing to the mutiny at the Nore; the highest was 114 in 1896 owing t6 scarcity of stock, the operation of the sinking funds, and the demand for investment of savings bank moneys. The high premium to which consols rose towards the end of the century may be briefly explained. Pari passu with the re- duction of the debt went a dwindling of the amount of consols open to investors, and hence occurred a continued normal appre- ciation of the stock. In 1817 the amount of British government stock per head of the population was £40, IDS.; in 1896 this figure had decreased to £14, I2s. The ordinary law of supply and demand would therefore in any case tend to increase the price of govern- ment stock. This has always happened. The amount of 3% diminished from 528 millions in 1817 to 498 in 1827, and to 497 in 1837, and the average prices in these years were 73, 83 and 90; additions were made to the stock, and in 1847 (the amount being 510 millions) the price was 86f; again the amount decreased, and in 1852 (500 millions) the price was 98 ; then a great conversion raised the amount to 734 millions in 1854, and the price went down to 90$ ; but by 1887 the amount decreased by about 200 millions, and the price rose well above par; and though the reduction in interest in 1888 set back the price, it rose again as the amount of available stock diminished. Many causes, into which it is not necessary to enter, operated no doubt in keeping up the demand for British government credit. Moreover, apart from the fact that in 1882 there were 689 millions of 3% and in 1900 only 501 millions of 2f% in existence, the amount held by government departments and therefore practically locked up from the market, gradually increased, until from this cause alone the amount of available stock was diminished by upwards of 200 millions; and a large " Other liabilities " it must be remembered, represent money advanced (generally by terminable annuity) on reproductive objects — telegraphs, barracks, public works, Uganda railway, &c. — and they could not, obviously, be properly included in the national debt unless at the same time a set-off were made for the valuable assets held by the British government, such as the Suez canal shares, which in 1902 were alone worth upwards of £26,000,000. (H. CH.) British National Debt Conversions. — The great bulk of the funded debt of the United Kingdom consists of annuities, which are described as perpetual, because the state is under no obliga- tion to pay off at any time the capital debt which they represent. All that the public creditor can claim is to receive payment of the instalments of annuity as they fall due. On the other hand, the government has the right to redeem the annuities ultimately by payment of the capital debt; though it may, and frequently does, bind itself not to exercise that right as regards a particular stock of annuities until after a definite period. So long as a stock is thus guaranteed against redemption, the only way in which the annual charge for that portion of the debt can be reduced is by the government buying back the annuities in the open market at their current price, which may be more or may be less than the nominal debt, according to general financial conditions and to the state of the national credit. The liability of the stock to redemption at par, when the period of guarantee has expired, prevents its market price from rising materially above that level. To enable the right of compulsory redemption to be enforced, it is only necessary that the government should 1 Other causes are redemption of land tax, variation in capital value of terminable annuities and minor treasury operations. NATIONAL DEBT 271 have command of sufficient funds for the purpose of paying off the stockholders, or should be able to raise those funds by borrowing at a rate of interest lower than that borne by the stock. Any circumstances which might tend to raise the price of the stock above par would also assist the government in raising its redemption money on more favourable terms. When the amount of stock to be dealt with is large, the raising by a fresh loan of the amount required for redemption would occasion great disturbance. A more convenient method is the conversion of the existing stock to a lower rate of interest by agreement with the stockholders, whose reluctance to accept a reduction of income is overborne by their knowledge that the power of redemption exists and will be put in force if necessary. The opportunity for conversion may be looked for when the price of a redeemable stock stands steadily at or barely above par. Observa- tion of the movements' in the price of other securities will serve to show whether this stationary price represents the real market value of the stock, or whether that value is subject to depression owing to an expectation of the stock being converted or redeemed. Accordingly, the course of prices of other government stocks which are free from the liability to redemption, of the stocks of foreign countries and the colonies, and of the large municipalities, must be watched by government in order to determine, first, whether the conversion of a redeemable stock is feasible, and, secondly, to what extent the reduction of the interest in the stock may be carried. The credit for the first measure of conversion belongs to Walpole, though it was carried through by Stanhope, his successor as chan- cellor of the exchequer. In 1714 the legal rate of interest for. private transactions, which had been fixed at 6% in the year of the Restoration, was reduced to 5% by the act 12 Anne, stat. 2, c. 16. But the bulk of the national debt still bore interest at 6%, the doubtful security of the throne and the too frequent irregularities in public payment having hitherto precluded any considerable borrowing at lower rates. Walpole saw that the first requirement was to give increased confidence to the public creditors. Three acts were passed dealing respectively with debts due to the general public, to the Bank of England and to the South Sea Company. Three separate funds — the general fund, the aggre- gate fund and the South Sea fund — were assigned to the service of the several classes of debt, each of these funds being credited with the produce of specified taxes, which were made permanent for the purpose; and it was further provided that any surplus of the funds, after payment of the interest of the debts, should be applied in reduction of the principal. Such was the success of this measure that, in spite of the reduction of interest from 6 to 5% which was also enacted, the passing of the acts was followed by a rise in the price of stocks. A curious preliminary to the introduction of these measures was the passing of a resolution by the House of Commons, which invited advances not exceeding £600,000, to be repaid with interest at 4% out of the first supplies of the year. The result showed that the time was not ripe for such a reduction of interest, as only a sum of £45,000 was offered on those terms. A further resolution was then passed, substituting 5 % as the rate of interest, and the whole sum was at once subscribed. Besides accept- ing the reduction of interest on their own debts, the Bank of England and the South Sea Company agreed to assist the government by advancing 4$ millions at the reduced rate, to be employed in paying off any of the general creditors who might refuse assent to the con- version. The assistance was not required, as all the creditors signified assent. The debts thus dealt with amounted altogether to about 25$ millions, and the annual saving of interest effected (including that upon a large quantity of exchequer bills for which the Bank had been receiving over 7 %) was £329,000. Walpole had a further opportunity of effecting a conversion in 1737. In the meantime much of the 5% debt had been reduced to 1749 ^ *f* ky arrangements with the Bank of England and the South Sea Company, and further borrowings had taken place at that rate and even at 3%. In 1737 the 3% stood above par, and Sir John Barnard proposed to the House of Commons a scheme for the gradual reduction of the 4 %. As a financial measure the scheme would doubtless have succeeded; but Walpole, moved apparently by consideration for his capitalist supporters, opposed and for the time defeated it. A scheme on similar lines was carried through by Pelham as chancellor of the exchequer in 1749 and em- bodied in the act 23 Geo. II. c. I. By that act holders of the 4% securities, amounting to nearly £58,000,000, were offered a con- tinuance of interest at 4% for one year, followed by 3^ % for seven years, during which they were guaranteed against redemption, with a final reduction to 3 % thereafter. It was necessary to continue the rate of 4 % for the first year, as any objecting stockholders could not be paid off without a year's notice. Three months were allowed for signifying assent to the proposal. At first it was viewed with disfavour, and both the Bank and the East India Company opposed it. But the pens of the government pamphleteers were busily occupied in showing the advantages of the offer, and at the close of the three months acceptances had been received from the holders of nearly £39,000,000 of the stocks, or more than two-thirds of the whole. A further opportunity was afforded to waverers by a second act (23 Geo. II. c. 22), which allowed three months more for consideration; but for holders accepting under this act the inter- mediate period of 3J% interest was reduced from seven years to five. These terms brought in an additional £15,600,000 of stock; and the balance left outstanding, amounting to less thanj 3 J millions, was paid off at par by means of a new loan. The annual saving of interest on the stock converted was at first £272,000, increasing to £544,000 after seven years. For nearly three-quarters of a century no further conversion was attempted. In that period the total debt had been increased tenfold, and the practice of borrowing in times of war by the issue of an inflated capital, bearing nominally a low rate of interest, prevented recourse to conversion as a means of reducing the burden after peace was restored. But in 1822 Mr Vansittart— who four years earlier had effected a conversion in the opposite direction, turning £27,000,000 of stock from 3 inio 3 j %, in order to obtain from the holders an advance of £3,000,000 without adding to the capital of the debt — was able to deal with the 5 %. These stocks amounted to £152,000,000 out of a total funded debt of £795,000,000. The prices at which the chief denominations of government stocks stood in the market in the early part of 1822 indicated a normal rate of interest ot more than 4 but considerably less than 4i%. In these circumstances, to propose the conversion of the 5 % stocks to 4i % would probably have been futile, unless the new stock were guaran- teed for a long period, as holders would have stood in fear of a speedy further reduction. Nor could the government hope to suc- ceed in a reduction to 4%. Mr Vansittart's plan was to offer £105 of stock bearing 4 % in exchange for £100 of 5 % stock, thus adding slightly tojthe capital of the debt, but effecting a large annual saving in interest. These terms were highly successful. Holders of nearly £150,000,000 accepted, leaving less than £3,000,000 of the stock to be paid off, and the annual saving obtained was £1,197,000. The new 4 % stock was made irredeemable for seven years (act 3, Geo. IV c. 9). There were, however, other 4 % stocks, amounting to £76,000,000, which were not secured against redemption. Two years later, the conditions being favourable for their conversion, the act 5 Geo. IV. c. 24 was passed, offering holders in exchange a 3i % stock, irredeemable for five years. The offer was accepted as regards £70,000,000, and the remaining £6,000,000 paid off, the annual saving on interest being £381,000. In 1830 the guarantee given to the 4% stock of 1822 had expired, and the stock stood at a price of 1025. Mr Goulburn decided to attempt its conversion without delay, and accordingly by the act ii Geo. IV. c. 13 holders were offered in exchange • for each £100 of the stock, either £100 of a 3! % stock, irredeemable for ten years, or £70 of a 5 % stock, irredeemable for forty-two years, these two options being considered of approximately equal value. No difficulty was found in securing assent. Over £150,000,000 of the stock was converted, almost wholly into the 3i % stock; the balance of less than £3,000,000 was paid off, and an annual saving of £754,000 in interest was the result. It was again Mr Goulburn's fortune to carry out a large and successful conversion in 1844. At that date the funded debt was made up of 3 % and ji % stocks in the proportions of about two to one, the only other denomination being the trifling amount of 5 % stock created in connexion with the conver- sion of 1830. The price of 3% consols ranged about 98, and that of the new 3i%, created in 1830, about 102. A reduction straight- way from 3i to 3% was not to be looked for, but it was hoped to ensure that reduction ultimately by offering 3i% for the first few years and a guarantee against redemption for a long term. Accord- ingly the holders of the several 3? % stocks were offered an exchange to a new stock bearing interest at 3} % for ten years and at 3 % for the following twenty years. Practically the whole of the stock, amounting to £249,000,000, was converted on these terms, only £103,000 being left to be paid off at par. The immediate saving of interest was £622,000 a year for ten years, and twice that rate in subsequent years (acts 7 & 8 Viet. cc. 4 and 5). Mr Gladstone's only attempt at the conversion of the debt was made in his first year as chancellor of the exchequer. His primary purpose was to extinguish some small remnants of 3% stocks which stood outside the main stocks of that de- ' nomination. The act 1 6 Viet. c. 23 offered to holders of these minor stocks, amounting altogether to about <)\ millions, the option of exchanging every £100 for either £82, los. of a 3J % stock guaran- teed for 40 years, or £no of a 2^% stock guaranteed for the same period, or else for exchequer bonds at par. In the result stock to the amount of only about £1,500,000 was converted, and the remaining £8,000,000 had to be paid off at par, with some apparent loss of capital, as the current market price of the 3 % was less than par. The failure w?s largely owing to the fact that, between the initiation and the execution of the scheme, the train of events leading up to the Crimean War had become manifest, with unfavourable results 272 NATIONALITY— NATIONAL WORKSHOPS to the public credit. Mr Gladstone had also included, as an optional portion of his plan, liberty to holders of the larger 3% stocks to exchange into the new 3j and 2j%. Very little advantage was taken of this permission, but the small amount of 2j% stock then created has been largely added to in later years by the conversion of stocks of higher denominations held by the national debt com- missioners for the savings banks and other government funds. Little better was the result of a more ambitious attempt made by Mr Childers in 1884. His offer (act 47 & 48 Viet. c. 23) extended 1884 to t'le holders of all the 3 % stocks, amounting to more than 600 millions, but no attempt was made to compel acceptance. There was offered in exchange for each £100 of 3% stock either £102 of a stock at 2 J % or £108 of a stock at 2 J %, both irredeemable for twenty-one years. But the amount exchanged into the new stocks was only 22 millions, of which more than one- half was stock held by government departments. The most important of all the conversions of the British debt was effected by Mr Goschen in 1888. It applied to the whole of the 3 % 1888 stocks, amounting to a total of £558,000,000, made up as follows: £323,000,000 of consols, a stock which dated from 1752, when it was formed by the consolidation of a number of minor stocks; £69,000,000 of reduced 3%, of which the nucleus was the stock reduced from 4 to 3% by Pelham's conversion in !749; £166,000,000 of new 3% resulting from the conversion of 1844. All the three stocks were, and had been for a considerable time, well over par. But for the past few years they had remained in almost a stationary position, relatively to the upward movement shown in the prices of the government 2j% stock, and of the stocks of foreign governments, of British colonies and of the leading munici- palities. It was clear that the anticipation of a conversion or re- demption scheme was weighing down consols. Direct evidence of this fact was afforded by the course of a new 3% stock, the local loans stock, which Mr Goschen had created in 1887. Though bearing the same interest and resting upon the same ultimate security as consols, this stock, which had been made irredeemable for twenty- five years, rose at once to a higher level of price. The opportunity for a great scheme of conversion had evidently come. The risk to be incurred by government in undertaking the liability to pay off such an enormous body of stock, though Iqss in comparison with the resources of the nation than that which Mr Goulburn had faced in 1844, was still very great, and it was rendered more formidable by the fact that holders of consols and of reduced 3% were entitled at law to a year's notice before their stocks could be redeemed. If that right of notice were to be enforced as regards any large pro- portion of the stocks, no precaution could adequately guard against the risk of untoward circumstances arising to affect the operation before the year expired. Mr Goschen proposed to offer to the holders of each of the three stocks an exchange at par into a new stock bearing interest at 3 % for the first year, at 2f % for the next fourteen years and at 2$ % for twenty years thereafter, the stock to be irredeemable for the whole of that period, namely till 1923. Acceptance was made compulsory for holders of the new 3 %, with the alternative of being paid off at par, as they had no claim to receive notice; but it was made optional for the holders of the other two stocks, and a bonus of 53. % was offered to them as an induce- ment to forgo their right of notice. These provisions were duly embodied in the act 51 Viet. c. 2. The terms were accepted by practically all the holders of the new 3 % and by the great majority of the holders in consols and reduced 35, the amount left outstanding being only £42,000,000. To enable that balance to be dealt with, an act was passed providing for the compulsory redemption or conver- sion of the outstanding stock at the expiry of the statutory notice. The funds required for this further operation were raised by the issue of treasury bills and exchequer bonds, by temporary advances from the bank and from the national debt commissioners, and by the creation of an additional half-million of the new stock. In the result it was only necessary to find cash for paying off dissentients to the amount of £19,000,000. The final outcome of the whole operation was a saving in the annual charge of interest of £1,412,000, increasing to twice that amount after fourteen years. The conversion of the consols and reduced 3% was greatly facilitated by the exercise of a power, which the act conferred, to pay to recognized agents, such as stockbrokers, bankers and solicitors, a commission of is. 6d. % on stocks in respect of which they lodged their clients' assents. These agents were thus afforded an induce- ment to give their clients explanation and advice, without which many of the fundholders would probably not have moved in the matter. The commissions paid amounted to more than £234,000, representing stocks to the amount of over £312,000,000. The government would not again be confronted with this difficulty of having to give long preliminary notice of the intention to convert or redeem a large portion of the debt, as it was provided by the Conversion Act 1888 that the present consols should be redeemable after 1923 on such notice and in such manner as parliament might direct. (W. BL.; E. W. H.*) See Leroy-Beaulieu, Traile de la Science des Finances; Rau, Finanzwissenschaft; M'CulIoch, On Taxation and the Funding System; Hamilton, Inquiry concerning the Rise and Progress of the English Debt; Taylor, History of Taxation in England; Fenn, Compendium of English and Foreign Funds; Dudley Baxter, National Debts, and his paper in the Stat. Soc. Jour. (1874). ; Sir E. W. Hamil- ton, Conversion and Redemption (1889). And for statistics of national debts see the Statesman's Year-Book and the Stock Exchange Annual. NATIONALITY, a somewhat vague term, used strictly in international law (see INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE) for the status of membership in a nation or state (for the conditions of which see STATE, ALLEGIANCE, NATURALIZATION, ALIEN), and in a more extended sense in political discussion to denote an aggregation of persons claiming to represent a racial, territorial or some other bond of unity, though not necessarily recognized as an independent political entity. In this latter sense the word has often been applied to such people as the Irish, the Armenians and the Czechs. A " nationality " in this connexion represents a common feeling and an organized claim rather than distinct attributes which can be comprised in a strict definition. NATIONAL WORKSHOPS (Fr. Ateliers Nationaux), the term applied to the workshops established to provide work for the unemployed by the French provisional government after the revolution of 1848.' The political crisis which resulted in the abdication of Louis Philippe was naturally followed, in Paris, by an acute industrial crisis, and this, following the general agricultural and commercial distress which had prevailed through- out 1847, rendered the problem of unemployment in Paris very acute. The provisional government under the influence of one of its members, Louis Blanc, and on the demand of a deputation claiming to represent the people passed a decree (Feb. 25, 1848) from which the following is an extract: — The provisional government of the French Republic undertakes to guarantee the existence of the workmen by work. It undertakes to guarantee work for every citizen. For the carrying out of this decree, Louis Blanc wanted the formation of a ministry of labour, but this was shelved by his colleagues, who as a compromise appointed a government labour Commission, under the presidency of Louis Blanc, with power of inquiry and consultation only. The carrying out of the decree of Feb. 25th was entrusted to the minister of public works, M. Marie, and various public works 2 were immediately started. The earlier stages of the national works are sufficiently interesting to justify the following detailed account: — " The workman first of all obtained a certificate from the landlord of his house, or furnished apartments, showing his address, whether in Paris or the department of the Seine. This certificate was vised and stamped by the police commissary of the district. The work- man then repaired to the office of the maire of his ward, and, on delivering this document, received in exchange a note of admission to the national works, bearing his name, residence and calling, and enabling him to be received by the director of the workplaces in which vacancies existed. All went well while the number of the un- employed was less than 6000, but as soon as that number was exceeded the workmen of each arrondissement, after having visited all the open works in succession without result, returned to their maire's offices tired, starving and discontented. The workmen had been promised bread when work was not to be had, which was reason- able and charitable; the great mistake was, however, then committed of giving them money, and distributing it in public at the offices of the maires instead of distributing assistance in kind, which might have been done so easily through the agency of the bureaux de bien- faisance. Each maire s office was authorized to pay every un- employed workman 1-50 frs. per day on production of a ticket showing that there was no vacancy for him in the national works. The fixed sum of 2 francs was paid to any workman engaged on the public excavation work, without regard to his age, the work done or his calling. . . . The workman made the following simple calcu- lation, and he made it aloud : ' The state gives me 30 sous for doing nothing, it pays me 40 sous when I work, so I need only work to the extent of 10 sous.' This was logical. . . . " The works opened by the minister of public works being far distant from each other, and the workmen not being able to visit them all in turn to make certain that there were no vacancies for them, two central bureaux were established, one at the Halle-aux- Veaux under M. Wissocq, the other near the maire's office in the 'The term is also incorrectly applied to the proposed ateliers sociauxol Louis Blanc (q.v.), state-supported co-operative productive societies. 1 Clearing the trench of Clamart and conveying the earth to Paris for the construction of a railway station on the chemin de fer de 1'Ouest; construction of the Paris terminus of the Paris-Chartres railway; improvement of the navigation of the Oise: extension of the Sceaux railway to Orsay. NATROLITE— NATURAL BRIDGE 273 5th arrondissement in the Rue de Bondy, entrusted to M. Higonnet. . . . The workmen went to have their tickets examined at one of these bureaux; and the absence of employment having been proved, they returned to get their 30 sous at their maires' offices."1 Owing to the increase in the number of those claiming work or relief, disorganization set in, and both the bureaux and the maires became the centres of disturbances, those in charge of the offices being unable to control the crowds. As a consequence M. Marie commissioned Emile Thomas, a chemist connected with the Ecole Centrale to reorganize the works. When Thomas took the work in hand on the 5th of March, the number of unemployed had increased to 14,000 in addition to some 4000 or 5000 employed on public works, and it was steadily on the increase. On the i6th of March the daily pay of the workmen who were not working was reduced to i franc; work was guaranteed for at least every other day, in which case the pay was to be 2 francs for the day. The possible usefulness of this order was stultified by the near approach of the elections, the moderate and extreme sections both trying to exploit the •dissatisfied workmen. Private industry, too, was paralysed, the workpeople for the most part preferring i franc a day and idleness, with the possibility of future benefits. Thomas, left practically to his own resources, endeavoured to organize some special workshops where artisans could be employed at their own trades; but it was found almost impossible to persuade them to do serious work, as they knew that many of their fellows were being paid for loafing. On the igth of May the number enrolled had increased to 87,942. The National Assembly had in the meanwhile been elected, and met on the 4th of May. The Executive Commission was elected a few days later; Louis Blanc was excluded, but all the other members of the provisional government were on it. Blanc renewed his motion for a ministry of labour; this was rejected. On the isth the mob invaded the Assembly, and from that time the government abated their socialist tendencies, and cast about for means to put an end to what had become a serious danger to the state as well as an exhausting drain on the treasury. On the 24th of May Thomas received instructions to dismiss all unmarried men under 25 years of age who would not enlist in the army, all men who could not prove six months' residence in Paris, and all who refused offers of private employment. Piece-work was to be established instead of time-work, and men were to be prepared to be drafted into the provinces. Thomas foretold trouble as a consequence of the order, and it was for a time withdrawn. On the 26th of May Thomas was superseded by M. Lalanne, and on the 3oth the National Assembly decreed the substitution of piece-work for time-work. On the 2oth of June the remainder of the proposals were approved, and the sequel was the insurrection of the 23rd of June and following days (see FRENCH HISTORY). How far the real socialistic scheme of Louis Blanc would have been successful if it had been put in practice must remain a matter of speculation. It was entered upon hastily, without any organiza- tion, was looked upon coldly by those servants of the govern- ment who ought to have assisted it, and, in the circumstances, was foredoomed to failure from the start. AUTHORITIES. — E. Thomas, Histoire des ateliers nationaux (1848) ; L. Blanc, Histoire de la revolution fran$aise de 1848 (1870-1880); 1848 Hist, revelations' (1858) ; A. de Lamartine, Hist, de la resolution de 1848 (1849) ; a useful summary is given in the English Board of Trade Report on Agencies and Metltodsfor dealing with the Unemployed (c. 7182, 1893). NATROLITE, a mineral species belonging to the zeolite group. It is a hydrated sodium and aluminium silicate with the formula NajAUSiaOio^HzO, and containing sodium (NajO, 16-3%), was named natrolite by M. H. Klaproth in 1803. " Needle- stone " or " needle-zeolite " are other names, alluding to the common acicular habit of the crystals, which are often very slender and are aggregated in divergent tufts. Larger crystals have the form of a square prism terminated by a low pyramid: the prism angle being nearly a right angle (88° 455'), the crystals are tetragonal in appearance, though actually orthorhombic. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism. 1 E. Thomas, Histoire des ateliers nationaux, p. 29. The mineral also often occurs in compact fibrous aggregates, the fibres having a divergent or radial arrangement (hence the name radiolite for one variety). From other fibrous zeolites natrolite is readily distinguished by its optical characters: between crossed nicols the fibres extinguish parallel to .their length, and they do not show an optic figure in convergent polarized light. Natrolite is usually white or colourless, but some- times reddish or yellowish. The lustre is vitreous, or in finely fibrous specimens sometimes silky. The spec. grav. is 2-2, and the hardness 55. The mineral is readily fusible, melting in a candle-flame, to which it imparts a yellow colour owing to the presence of sodium. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of gelatinous silica. Natrojite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basic igneous rocks. The best specimens are the diverging groups of white prismatic crystals found in compact basalt at the Puy-de- Marman, Puy-de D6me, France. The largest crystals are those from Brevig in Norway. The walls of cavities in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway, in Co. Antrim, are frequently encrusted with slender needles of natrolite, and similar material is found abundantly in the volcanic rocks (basalt and phonolite) of Salesel, Aussig and several other places in the north of Bohemia. Several varieties of natrolite have been distinguished by special names. Fargite is a red natrolite from Glenfarg in Perthshire. Bergmannite or Spreustein is an impure variety which has resulted by the alteration of other minerals, chiefly sodalite, in the augite- syenite of southern Norway. NATTIER, JEAN MARC (1685-1766), French painter, was born in Paris in 1685, the son of Marc Nattier, a portrait painter, and of Marie Courtois, a miniaturist. He received his first instruction from his father, and having applied himself to copying pictures at the Luxembourg Gallery, he refused to proceed to the French Academy in Rome, though he had taken the first prize at the Paris Academy at the age of fifteen. In 1715 he went to Amsterdam, where Peter the Great was then staying, and painted portraits of the tsar and the empress Catherine, but declined an offer to go to Russia. Between 1715 and 1720 he devoted himself to compositions like the " Battle of Pultawa," which he painted for Peter the Great, and the " Purification of Phineus and of his Companions," which led to his election to the Academy. The financial collapse of 1720 caused by the schemes of Law all but ruined Nattier, who found himself forced to devote his whole energy to portraiture. He became the painter of the artificial ladies of Louis XV.'s court. The most notable examples of his straightforward portraiture are the " Marie Leczinska " at the Dijon Museum, and a group of the artist surrounded by his family, dated 1730. He died in Paris in 1 766. Many of his pictures are in the public collections of France. Thus at the Louvre is his " Magdalen " ; at Nantes the portrait of " La Camargo " and " A Lady of the Court of Louis XV." At Orleans a " Head of a Young Girl," at Marseilles a portrait of " Mme de Pompadour," at Perpignan a portrait of '"Louis XV., " and at Valenciennes a portrait of " Le Due de Boufflers." The Versailles Museum owns an important group of two ladies, and the Dresden Gallery a portrait of the " Mar6chal de Saxe." At the Wallace collection Nattier is represented by " The Comtesse de Dillieres," " The Bath (MdlledeClermont)," " Portrait of a Lady in Blue," " Marie Leczinska " and " A Prince of the House of France." In the collection of Mr Lionel Phillips are the duchess of Flavacourt as " Le Silence," and the duchess of Chateauroux as " Le Point du jour." A portrait of the " Comtesse de Neubourg and her Daughter " formed part of the Vaile Collection, and realized 4500 gs. at the sale of this collection in 1903. Nattier's works have been engraved by Leroy, Tardieu, Lepicie, Audran, Dupin and many other noted craftsmen. See " J. M. Nattier," by Paul Mantz, in the Gazette des beaux-arts (1894); Life of Nattier, by his daughter, Madame Tocque; Nattier, by Pierre de Nolhac (1904, revised 1910); and French Painters of the XVIIIth Century, by Lady Dilke (London, 1899). NATURAL BRIDGE, a small village of Rockbridge county, Virginia, in the western part of the state, 179 m. by rail W. of Richmond, and about 16 m. S.E. of Lexington, the county-seat. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western railways. In the vicinity of the village, which is about 1500 ft. 274 NATURAL GAS— NATURALISM above sea-level, is the great natural curiosity from which it derives its name — a bridge of natural rock 90 ft. long and from 50 to 150 ft. wide, which spans Cedar Creek at a height of 215 ft. above that stream. It consists of horizontal limestone strata, and is the remains of the roof of a cave or underground tunnel through which the creek once flowed. It is crossed by a public road. In the village are magnesia and lithia springs and a salt- petre cave, which was worked during the War of 1812 and the Civil War. A royal grant dated the 5th of July 1 7 74 conveyed to Thomas Jefferson a tract of 157 acres, " including the Natural Bridge on Cedar Creek," and ?t did not pass from his estate until 1833- NATURAL GAS, the name given to the inflammable gas occur- ring in petroliferous formations. It consists mainly of hydro- carbons of the paraffin series, principally marsh gas, which constitutes from 50 to 90 % of the Pennsylvanian gas. Members of the olefine series are also present, especially in the gas of Baku. Varying amounts of carbon dioxide, sometimes as much as 10% or more, and small quantities of carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen are also found. For particulars of the geological occurrence, and the collection and distribution, of natural gas, see PETROLEUM. NATURALISM. " Nature " is a term of very uncertain extent, and the " natural " has accordingly several antitheses, often more or less conflicting, and only to be learnt from the context in which they occur. Thus, though Man and the World are often opposed as respectively subject and object, yet the word nature is applied to both: hence Naturalism is used in both a subjective and an objective sense. In the subjective sense the natural, as the original or essential, is opposed to what is acquired, artificial, conventional or accidental. On this opposition the casuistry and paradoxes of the Sophists largely turned; it determined also, at least negatively, the conduct of the Cynics in their contempt for the customary duties and decencies; and it led the Stoics to seek positive rules of life in " conformity to nature." This deference for the " natural " generally, and distrust of traditional systems of thought and even of traditional institutions, has played a large part in modern philosophy, especially British philosophy. It was perhaps the inevitable outcome of the reaction, which began with the Renaissance, against the medieval domination of mere authority. " L'homme qui medite est un animal depravd," said Rousseau; and again, " Tout est bien sortant des mains de 1'auteur des choses, tout degenere entre les mains de rhomme."1 In psychology and epistemology, " no one," as Green has said, " is more emphatic than Locke in opposing what is real to what we ' make for ourselves ' — the work of nature to the work of the mind. Simple ideas or sensations we certainly do not ' make for ourselves.' They therefore, and matter supposed to cause them, are, according to Locke, real. But relations are neither simple ideas nor their material archetypes. They therefore, as Locke explicitly holds, fall under the head of the work of the mind, which is opposed to the real."2 This opposition again led Hume, in the first place, to distinguish between natural and philosophical relations — the former determined simply by associa- tion, the latter by an abitrary union of two ideas, which we may think proper tc compare — and then, in the next, to reduce identity and causality, the two chief " philosophical relations," to fictions resulting from " natural relations," that is. to say, from associations of similarity and contiguity. Subjective naturalism thus tended to become, and in the end became, what is more commonly called Sensationalism or Associationism, thereby approximating towards that objective naturalism which reduces the external world to a mechanism describable in terms of matter and motion — a result already foreshadowed when Hartley connected ideas and their association with brain vibrations and vibratiuncles. In ethics, also, the striving to get back to the natural entailed a similar downward trend. From the Cambridge Platonists, from Locke and Clarke, we hear much of rational 1 Quoted by Eisler, Worterbuck der philosophischen Begriffe (1899), s.v. Naturalismus." 1 T. H. Green, Prolegomena to Ethics (1883), § 20. principles of conduct, comparable in respect of intelligibility with the truths of mathematics; but already we find that in Shaftesbury the centre of ethical interest is transferred from the Reason, conceived as apprehending either abstract moral dis- tinctions or laws of divine legislation, to the " natural affections " that prompt to social duty;3 and when we reach Bentham, with pleasure and pain as " sovereign masters," and the Mills, with love of virtue explained by the laws of association, all seems to be non-rational.4 There is much resemblance, as well as some historical connexion, between the naturalism of moralists such as Shaftesbury and Hutcheson and the Common-Sense metaphysics of Reid and his school.6 Hence Kant, distinguishing between a " naturalistic " and " scientific " or critical method in metaphysics, styles Reid and his followers " naturalists of pure reason," satirically comparing them to people who think they can settle the size and distance of the moon by direct eyesight better than by the roundabout calculations of mathematics. So far we have seen the natural approximating to the non- rational. But when used in a subjective sense in opposition to the supernatural, it means the rational as opposed to what is above reason, or even contrary to reason. It is in this sense that the term Naturalism most frequently occurs; and it was so applied specially to the doctrines of the English Deists and the German Illuminati of the I7th and i8th centuries: those of them who held that human reason alone was capable of attaining to the knowledge of God were called theological naturalists or rationalists, while those who denied the possibility of revela- tion altogether were called philosophical naturalists or naturalists simply.6 In these controversies the term Naturalist was also sometimes used in an objective sense for those who identified God and Nature, but they were more frequently styled Spinozists, Pantheists or even Atheists. But it is at once obvious that dispute as to what is natural and what supernatural is vain and hopeless till the meanings of reason and nature are clearly defined. " The only distinct meaning of the word " [natural], said Butler, " is stated, fixed or settled; since what is natural as much requires and presupposes an intelligent agent to render it so, i.e. to effect it continually, or at stated times, as what is supernatural or miraculous does to effect it for once. And from hence it must follow that persons' notion of what is natural will be enlarged in proportion to their greater knowledge. . . . Nor is there any absurdity in supposing that there may be beings in the universe, whose capacities . . . may be so extensive, as that the whole Christian dispensation may to them appear natural, i.e. analogous or conformable to God's dealings with other parts of His creation; as natural as the visible known course of things appears to us." 7 The antithesis of natural to spiritual (or ideal) has mainly determined the use of the term Naturalism in the present day.8 But current naturalism is not to be called materialism, though these terms are often used synonymously, as by Hegel, Ueberweg and other historians of philosophy; nor yet pan- theism, if by that is meant the immanence of all things in one God. We know only material phenomena, it is said; matter is an abstract conception simply, not a substantial reality. It is therefore meaningless to describe mind as its effect. Moreover, mind also is but an abstract conception; and here again all our knowledge is confined to the phenomenal. To identify the two classes of phenomena is, however, impossible, and indeed absurd; nevertheless we find a constant concomitance of psychosis and neurosis; and the more sensationalist and associa- tionist our psychology, the easier it becomes to correlate the * Cf. Sidgwick, History of Ethics (1886), p. 181. 4 Cf. W. R. Sorley, The Ethics of Naturalism (1885), pp. 16 sqq. 6 Cf. W. R. Scott, Francis tiutcheson; his Life, Teaching and Position in Philosophy (1900), pp. 121, 265 seq. •See RATIONALISM; Kant, Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, Hartenstein's edition, vi. 253; and Lechler, Ge- schichte des Englischen Deismus (1841), pp. 454 sqq. ''Analogy, part i. chap. i. end. Cf. also J. S. Mill, Logic, book iii. chap. xxv. § 2, and Essays on Religion. 8 In aesthetics we find Naturalism used in a cognate sense: the Flemish pointers, such writers as Flaubert or Zola, for example, being called naturalistic or realistic, in contrast to the Italian painters or writers like George Sand or ihe Brontes. NATURALIZATION 275 psychical and the physical as but " two aspects " of one and the same fact. It is therefore simplest and sufficient to assume an underlying, albeit unknown, unity connecting the two. A monism — so far neutral, neither materialistic nor spiritualistic — is thus a characteristic of the prevailing naturalism. But when the question arises, how best to systematize experience as a whole, it is contended that we must begin from the physical side. Here we have precise conceptions, quantitative exactness and thoroughgoing continuity; every thought that has ever stirred the hearts of men, not less than every breeze that has ever rippled the face of the deep, has meant a perfectly definite re- distribution of matter and motion. To the mechanical principles of this redistribution an ultimate analysis brings us down; and — beginning from these — the nebular hypothesis and the theory of natural selection will enable us to explain all subsequent synthesis.1 Life and mind now clearly take a secondary place; the cosmical mechanism determines them, while they are powerless to modify it. The spiritual becomes the " epiphenomenal," a merely incidental phosphorescence, so to say, that regularly accompanies physical processes of a certain type and complexity. (See also PSYCHOLOGY.) This absolute naturalism, as we may call it, the union, that is, of psychological and cosmolcgica) naturalism, is in fact a species of Fatalism, as Kant indeed entitled it.2 It is the logical outcome of a Sensationalist psychology, and of the epistemology which this entails. As long as association of ideas (or sensory residua) is held to explain judgment and conscience, so long may naturalism stand. The naturalistic work of chief account at the present day is E. Haeckel's Die Weltratsel, gemeinverstandliche Studien uber monistische Philosophic (sth ed., 1900), of which an English trans- lation has appeared. Effective refutations will be found in the works of two of Haeckel's colleagues, O. Liebmann, Zur Analysis det Wirklichkeit (3rd ed., 1900) ; R. Eucken, Die Einheit des Geisteslebens in Bewusstsein und That der Menschheit (1888, Eng. trans.); Der Kampf um einen geistigen Lebensinhalt (1898). See also A. J. Balfour, Foundations of Belief (Sth ed., 1901); J. Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism (1899). (J. W.*) NATURALIZATION, the term given in law to the acquisition by an alien of the national character or citizenship of a certain state, always with the consent of that state and of himself, but not necessarily with the consent of the state to which he previously belonged, which may refuse to its subjects the right of renouncing its nationality, called " expatriation," or may allow the right only on conditions which have not been fulfilled in the particular case. Hence although nationality in strict theory is always single, as liege homage was and allegiance in its proper sense is, it often happens that two states claim the same person as their national or subject. This conflict arises not only from naturalization having, been granted without the corre- sponding expatriation having been permitted, but also from the fact that birth on the soil was the leading determinant of nation- ality by feudal law, and still is so by the laws of England and the United States (jus soli), while the nationality of the father is its leading determinant in those countries which have accepted Roman principles of jurisprudence (jus sanguinis). The conflict is usually solved for practical purposes by an understanding which is approximately general, namely that, in cases not pro- vided for by treaty, no state shall protect those whom it claims as its nationals while residing in the territory of another state which claims them as its own nationals by any title, whether jus soli, jus sanguinis, naturalization, or the refusal to allow expatriation. On this footing the British foreign office, while it grants passports for travel to naturalized persons, will extend no protection to them against a claim of their former country, if they return to it, to exact military service due to it. The United States, asserting that expatriation is an inalienable right of man, maintains that, to lose his right to American protection, the emigrant who has been naturalized in the United States must have done that for which he might have been tried and punished at the moment of his departure; it claims to protect him against the exaction of what at that moment was merely a future liability 1 Cf. Spencer, First Principles (1867), p. 398. 2 Cf. Prolegomena, § 60. to military service, and this doctrine has been practically accepted by France in her dealings with America. Germany also accepted it by the treaty of 1868 between the United States and the North German Confederation, now in force for the German empire, subject to provisions that the emigrant's fixing his domicile in the old country shall be deemed a renunciation of his naturalization in the new, and that his living in the old country for more than two years may be deemed to imply the absence of an intention to return to the new. Between the United States and Great Britain the convention of the I3th of May 1870 provides that naturalization in either is to be valid for all purposes immediately on its completion, but that if the resident shall renew his residence in his old country he may be readmitted to his old nationality, on his application and on such conditions as the readmitting government may impose. The Naturalization Act 1870, which now governs the matter for England, does not say that the person naturalized becomes thereby a British subject, to which, if it had been said, a proviso might have been added saving the above-mentioned policy of the foreign office as to not protecting him in his old country, although even without such a proviso the foreign office would have been free to follow that policy. The act in question (s. 7) gives him the rights and imposes on him the duties of a natural- born British subject in the United Kingdom, and provides that, when within the limits of his old country, he shall not be deemed a British subject unless he has ceased to be a subject of that country, by its laws or in pursuance of a treaty. On this wording it has been maintained that British naturalization is not really naturalization at all; but leaves the naturalized person as he was with the addition of a certain quality within the United Kingdom; and on that ground it has been considered in France that a Frenchman, obtaining naturalization in England, does not fall within the French law (Code Civil, Art. 17) which pronounces the expatriation of citizens who cause themselves to be naturalized abroad. This is the Bourgoise Case, 41 Ch. D. 310, in which, when it came before the English courts, Mr Justice Kay inclined to the same view, but the court of appeal avoided giving an opinion on the point. Professor Dicey leans to the same view (5 Law Quarterly Review, 438); but Sir Thomas Barclay (4 L.Q.R. 226), Sir Malcolm Mcllwraith (6 L.Q.R. 379), and Professor West- lake (International Law — Peace, 2nd ed. p. 234; Private Inter- national Law, 4th ed. p. 356) adopt the view that the Naturaliza- tion Act 1870 makes the naturalized person a full British subject, only to be treated in his old country in accordance with the international principles recognized by the British executive. And the foreign office, by granting passports to naturalized persons, acts on the same view. The point is important with reference to the question whether the naturalization of the father in the United Kingdom confers the character of British subjects on his children afterwards born abroad. (See ALIEN.) An analogous question arises on the provision in the Naturaliza- tion Act 1870, sec. 16, that the legislature of any British posses- sion may make laws " for imparting to any person the privileges of naturalization, to be enjoyed by such person within the limits ' of such possession." This, in accordance with the wider view of the effect of naturalization in the United Kingdom, may mean that naturalization in pursuance of a colonial law confers the full character of a British subject, only without removing disabilities, such as that to hold land, under which the naturalized person may have lain as an alien in any other British possession. On that footing the foreign office grants passports to the holders of colonial certificates of naturalization, and protects them in all foreign countries but that of their origin; and the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, sec. i, allows persons naturalized in British possessions to be owners of British ships. On the other hand, those who maintain the narrower view of the effect of natural- ization in the United Kingdom naturally hold that colonial naturalization has no effect at all outside the British possession in which it is granted. Naturalization in India is regulated by the British Indian Naturalization Act, No. 30 of 1852, under which it may be granted to subjects of the several princes and states in India 276 NAUARCHIA— NAUCRATIS as well as to those who are entirely aliens to the British empire. The former, however, are treated for several purposes as British subjects even without being so naturalized. In most countries a lengthened sojourn is a condition precedent to naturalization. In Belgium, the United Kingdom, North America and Russia the period of such sojourn is fixed at five years, in France, Greece and Sweden at three, in the Argentine Republic two, while in Portugal a residence of one year is sufficient. In Germany, Austria and Italy no period of residence is prescribed, while in Austria a ten years' residence confers per se the rights of citizenship. In the United States an alien desiring to be naturalized must declare on oath his intention to become a citizen of the United States; two years afterwards must declare on oath his intention to support the constitution of the United States and renounce allegiance to every foreign power, including that of which he was before a subject; must prove residence in the United States for five years, and in the state where his application is made for one year, as a good citizen; and must renounce any title of nobility. In France an alien desiring naturalization, if he has not resided continuously in the country for ten years, must obtain permission to establish his domicile in France; three years after (in special cases one year) he is entitled to apply for naturalization, which involves the renunciation of any existing allegiance. See further, ALLEGIANCE, INTERNATIONAL LAW (Private); also Bar, Private International Law (Gillespie's translation) ; Hansard, Law relating to Aliens; Cutler, Law of Naturalization; Cockburn, Nationality; Cogordan, Nationalite; Heffter, Europdisches Volker- recht; Hall, Foreign Jurisdiction of the British Crown; Westlake, International Law — Peace, and Private International Law (4th ed.). (JNO. W.) NAUARCHIA (Gr. vavs, ship, dpxi?, command), the supreme command of the Spartan navy. The office was an annual one and could not be held more than once by the same man (Xen. Hell. ii. i. 7). This law might be evaded in special cases; the new admiral might not be sent to take over the command until some time after his election, which took place at midsummer (Beloch in Philologus, xliii. p. 272 sqq.), and meanwhile his pre- decessor remained de facto admiral; or the retiring admiral might, after the expiry of his term, hold an appointment as secretary (eiuoToXeus) to one who, though titular admiral, was really placed under his orders or even kept at Sparta alto- gether. Being independent of the kings and hampered by no colleague, the nauarch wielded such power that Aristotle is hardly going too far when he says (Politics, ii. 9. 22), ri vavapxia. connexion with finance (apx'ri TeTayiJtvri irpos re ras «out 6000. NAUSEA (from Gr. vavs, a ship), sea-sickness, or generally any disposition to vomit; also used figuratively to denote feelings of strong aversion or dislike. NAUSICAA, in Greek legend, daughter of Alcinous, king of the Phaeacians in' the island of Scheria (Odyssey, vi. 15-315, viii. 457.) When Odysseus (Ulysses) was swept into the sea from the raft on which he had left the home of Calypso, he swam ashore to Scheria, where he fell asleep on the bank of a river. Here he was found by Nausicaa, who supplied him with clothes and took him to her father's palace, where he was hospitably entertained. She is said to have become the wife of Telemachus. The incident of Odysseus and Nausicaa formed the subject of a lost play by Sophocles and was frequently represented in ancient art. NAUTCH (Hindostani nach), an Indian ballet-dance. The nautch is performed by nautch-girls, who move their feet but little, and the dance consists of swaying the body and posturing with the arms. NAUTILUS. The term nautilus, meaning simply " the sailor," was applied by the ancient Greeks to the genus of eight-armed cuttlefishes or octopods which is now known as the paper nautilus, amf whose scientific name is Argonauta (see CEPHALOPODA). This animal is not uncommon in the Mediterranean, and from its habit of floating at the surface attracted the attention of the fishermen and sailors of the Aegean Sea from the earliest times. The popular belief that the expanded arms are raised above the water to act as sails and that the other arms are used as oars was not based on any actual observation of the living animal, and it is now known that although the animal floats at the surface it does not sail, the expanded arms being applied to the exterior surface of the shell, which is secreted by them. The eggs are carried in the shell, and as this structure is entirely absent in the males, there is good reason to conclude that the habit of carrying the eggs and using one pair of arms for that purpose gave rise to the modification of those arms and the secretion of the shell by them. Huxley once expressed the truth of the matter with characteristic felicity in the remark that if the shell of the Argonaut is to be compared to anything of human invention or construction at all, it should be compared, not to a ship or boat, but to a perambulator. The shell of Argonauta (see fig. i) is spirally coiled and sym- metrical, and thus bears a remarkable resemblance to the shell of the pearly nautilus and the extinct ammonites, especially FIG. I. — The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers.) Tr, Float; Br.a, ventral or posterior arms; Br.p, dorsal or anterior arms; V, the expanded portion of them, once called the sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En, the funnel. as it is like that of the pearly nautilus coiled towards the dorsal or anterior surface of the animal. It is ornamented by ridges and furrows which pass in transverse curves from the inner to the outer margin of the coils. The outer margin or keel is some- what flattened and the whole shell is compressed from side to side. It differs entirely from the shell of the pearly nautilus in the absence of internal septa and siphuncle and in the absence of any attachment between it and the body. It is in fact entirely different in origin and relations to the body from the typical molluscan shell secreted by the mantle in other Cephalopods and other types of Mollusca. It is a structure sui generis, unique in the whole phylum of Mollusca. The only description of the living animal by a competent observer which we have is that of Lacaze Duthiers, made on a single specimen on the Mediterranean coast of France, and pub- lished in 1892, and even this is in some respects incomplete. The specimen after capture was carried in a bucket, and became separated from its shell. When placed with the shell in a large aquarium tank the animal resumed possession of the shell and assumed the attitude shown in fig. i. The shell floated at the surface, doubtless in consequence of- the inclusion of some air in the cavity of the shell. It is not known with certainty that the animal is able in its natural state to descend below the surface; the specimen here considered never did so of its own accord, and when pushed down always rose again. 28o NAUVOO The siphon or funnel is unusually large and prominent, and is the chief or only organ of locomotion, the water which is expelled from it driving the animal backwards. The arms are usually turned backwards and carried inside the shell, to the inner surface of which the suckers adhere, but one or two arms are from time to time extended in front. This does not apply to the dorsal arms which are applied to the outside of the shell, and the expanded membrane of these arms covers the greater part of its surface. The dorsal arms are turned backwards, and each is twisted so that the oral surfaces face each other and the suckers are in contact with the shell. The membrane or velum is thin, and is really a great expansion of a dorsal membrane similar to that which is found along the median dorsal line of the two posterior arms. The suckers of the originally posterior series of each dorsal arm lie along the external border of the shell, and the arm with its two rows of suckers extends round the whole border of the membrane, the arm being curved into a complete loop, so that its extremity reaches almost to the origin of the membrane near the base of the arm, the extremity being continued on to the internal surface of the membrane. The external row of suckers, originally the posterior row, are united by membrane which is con- tinuous with the velum. The smaller suckers on the more distal part of the arm, which extends along the edge of the shell-aperture, are quite sessile. In the figure of Lacaze-Duthiers (fig. i) the suckers appear to be turned away from the shell, but this is erroneous. A figure showing the natural position is given in the Monograph of the Cephalopoda in the series of Monographs issued by the Zoological Station of Naples. The animal described by Lacaze-Duthiers lived a fortnight in captivity, during which time it devoured with avidity small fishes which were presented to it, seizing them, not by throwing out all the ventral arms, but by means of the suckers near the mouth. Judging from these observations, Argonauta is a pelagic animal which lives and feeds near the surface of the ocean. Several species of Argonauta are known, distributed in the tropical parts of all the great oceans. The male is much smaller than the female, not exceeding an inch or .so in length. It secretes no shell and its dorsal arms are not modified. The third arm on the left side, however, is modified in another way in connexion with reproduction. Argonauta is one of the Cephalopods in which the process known as hectocotylization of one arm is developed to its extreme degree, the arm affected becoming ultimately detached and left by the male in the mantle cavity of the female where it retains for some time its life and power of movement. The hectocotylus or copulatory arm in the Argonaut is developed at first in a closed cyst (fig. 2), which FIG. 2.—^a, Male of Argonauta argo, with the hectocotylized arm still contained in its enveloping cyst, four times enlarged (after H. Mttller). b, Hectocotylus of Tremoctopus violaceus (after Kolliker). afterwards bursts, allowing the arm to uncoil; the remains of the cyst form a sac on the back of the arm which serves to contain the spermatophores. The animal known as the Pearly Nautilus was unknown to the ancient Greeks, since its habitat is the seas of the far East, but in the middle ages, when its shell became known in Europe, it was called, from its superficial similarity to that of the original nautilus, by the same name. It was Linnaeus who, in order to distinguish the two animals, took the name " nautilus " from the animal to which it originally belonged and bestowed it upon the very different East Indian Mollusc, giving to the original nautilus the new name Argonauta. Zoological nomenclature dates from Linnaeus, and thus the nautilus is now the name of the only living genus of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods. A detailed description of this animal is given in the article Cephalopoda (q.v.) ; it is only necessary to add here a brief account of its mode of life and habits. Four species are known from the Indian and Pacific oceans; they are gregarious and nocturnal animals living at some depth and apparently always on the bottom. The natural attitude of the animal as represented by Dr Willey is with the oral surface down- wards, the tentacles spread out, and the shell vertical. The chambers of the shell have no communication with one another nor with the siphuncle. they are air-tight cavities and filled, not with water, but with a nitrogenous gas. This necessarily very much reduces the specific gravity of the animal, but it is still heavier than the water and does not seem capable of rising to the surface any more than an octopus. Nautilus is rather abundant at some localities in the East Indian Archipelago, for example at Amboyna in the Moluccas. In 1901-1902 Dr Arthur Willey of Cambridge University spent some time in that region for the purpose of investigating the reproduction and development of the animal. He stationed himself at New Britain, known to the Germans as Neu Pommern, an island of the Bismarck Archipelago off the coast of Papua. The natives of this island use the nautilus for food, capturing them by means of a large fish-trap similar in construction to the cylindrical lobster-traps used by British fishermen. Fish is used for bait. Dr Willey found the males much more numerous than the females; of fifteen specimens captured on one occasion only two were females. He kept specimens alive both in vessels on shore and in large baskets moored at the bottom of the sea. He found that when they were placed in a vessel of sea water numbers of a small parasitic Crustacea issued from the mantle cavity. Some of the females laid eggs in captivity, but these were found not to be fertilized; they were about 3-5 centi- metres long and attached singly by a broad base to the sides of the cage in which the animals were confined. LITERATURE. — Lacaze-Duthiers,"Observationd'unargonautedela Mediterran6e," Arch. zool. exper. x. (1902), p. 1892. Cephalopoda, by Jalta ; Fauna und Flora des Colfes von Neapel, monographs issued by the Zoological Station of Naples. Bashford Dean, " Notes on Living Nautilus, ' Amer. Natur. xxxv. (1901). A. Willey, Contribution to the Natural History of the Pearly Nautilus; A. Willey 's Zoological Results, pt. vi. (1902). (J. T. C.) NAUVOO, a city of Hancock county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river at the head of the lower rapids and about 50 m. aboveQuincy. Pop. (1900) 1321; (1910) 1020. On the opposite bank of the river is Montrose, Iowa (pop. in 1910, 708), served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway. Nauvoo is the seat of St Mary's Academy and Spalding Institute (1907), two institutions of the Benedictine Sisters. " Commerce City " was laid out here in 1834 by Connecticut speculators; but the first settlement of importance was made by the Mormons (q.v.) in 1839-1840; they named it Nauvoo,1 in obedience to a " revelation " made to Joseph Smith, and secured a city charter in 1840. Four years later its population was about 15,000, and a large Mormon temple had been built, but internal dissensions arose, "gentile" hostility was aroused, the charter of Nauvoo was revoked in 1845, two of the leaders, Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum, were killed at Carthage, the county-seat, by a mob, and in 1846 the sect was driven from the state. Traces of Mormonism, however, still remain in the ruins of the temple and the names of several of the streets. Three years after the expulsion of the Mormons Nauvoo was occupied by the remnant (some 250) of a colony of French communists, the Icarians, who had come out under the leadership of Etienne Cabet (q.v.). For a few years the colony prospered, and by 1855 its membership had doubled. It was governed under a constitution, drafted by Cabet, which vested the legislative authority in a general assembly composed of all the males twenty years of age or over and the administrative authority in a board of six directors, three of whom were elected every six months for a term of one year. Each family occupied its own home, but property was held in common, all ate at the common table, and the children were taught in the community school. In December 1855 Cabet proposed a revision of the constitution to give him greater authority. This resulted in rending the colony into two irrecon- cilable factions, and in October 1856 Cabet with the minority (172) withdrew to St Louis, Mo., where he died on the 8th of November. In May 1858 the surviving members of his faction together with a few fresh arrivals from France established a new 1 The Mormons said the name was of Hebrew origin and meant " beautiful place "; Hebrew " naveh " means " pleasant." NAVAHO— NAVARRE 281 Icarian colony at Cheltenham near St Louis, but this survived only for a brief period. Nauvoo was never intended to be more than a temporary home for the Icarians. Soon after the schism of 1856 those who had rebelled against Cabet began to prepare a permanent home in Adams county, Iowa. There too in 1879 the community split into two factions, the Young Party and the Old Party. Some time before this separation a few members of the colony removed to the vicinity of Cloverdale, Sonoma county, California, and here most of the members of the Young Party joined them early in 1884 in forming the Icaria-Speranza Community. This society tried a government quite different from that first adopted at Nauvoo, but it ceased to exist after about three years. The Old Party also adopted a new constitu- tion, but it too was dissolved in 1895. See Albert Shaw, Icaria: A Chapter in the History of Communism (New York, 1884) ; Jules Prudhommeaux, Icaria et son fondateur Etienne Cabet (Paris, 1907); and H. Lux, Etienne Cabet und der Ikarische Kommunismus (Stuttgart, 1894). NAVAHO, or NAVAJO, a tribe of North American Indians of Athabascan stock. They inhabit the northern part of Arizona and New Mexico. The majority live by breeding horses, sheep and goats. They are well known for their beautiful blanket weaving. (See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.) NAVAN, a market town of county Meath, Ireland, situated at the confluence of the Blackwater with the Boyne. Pop. (1901) 3839. It is a railway junction of some importance, where the Clonsilla and Kingscourt branch of the Midland Great Western railway crosses the Drogheda and Oldcastle branch of the Great Northern. By the former it is 30 m. N.W of Dublin. Navan is the principal town of county Meath (though Trim is the county town), and has considerable trade in corn and flour, some manu- facture of woollens and of agricultural implements, and a tannery. Navan was a barony of the palatinate of Meath, was walled and fortified, and was incorporated by charter of Edward IV. It suffered in the civil wars of 1641, and returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union in 1800. It is governed by an urban district council, and is a favourite centre for rod-fishing for trout and salmon. NAVARINO, BATTLE OF, fought on the 2oth of October 1827, the decisive event which established the independence of Greece. By the treaty signed in London on the 6th of July 1827 (see GREECE, History), England, France and Russia agreed to demand an armistice, as preliminary to a settlement. Sir Edward Codrington, then commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, received the treaty and his instructions on the night of the loth/i ith of August at Smyrna, and proceeded at once to Nauplia to communicate them to the Greeks. His instructions were to demand an armistice, to intercept all supplies coming to the Turkish forces in the Morea from Africa or Turkey in general, and to look for directions to Stratford Canning (Lord Stratford de Redcliffe), the British ambassador at Constantinople. The ambassador's instructions reached Codrington on the 7th of September. He was accompanied to Nauplia by his French colleague, Rear-Admiral de Rigny. The Greek government agreed to accept the armistice. Admiral de Rigny left for a cruise in the Levant, and Sir Edward Codrington, hearing that an Egyptian armament was on its way from Alexandria, and believing that it was bound for Hydra, steered for that island, which he reached on the 3rd of September, but on the i2th of September found the Egyptians at anchor with a Turkish squadron at Navarino. The Turkish government refused to accept the armistice. On the ipth of September, seeing a movement among the Egyptian and Turkish ships in the bay, Codrington informed the Ottoman admiral, Tahir Pasha, that he had orders to prevent hostile movements against the Greeks. Admiral de Rigny joined him immediately afterwards, and a joint note was sent by them on the 22nd of September to Ibrahim Pasha, who held the superior command for the sultan. On the 2$th an interview took place, in which Ibrahim gave a verbal engagement not to act against the Greeks, pending orders from the sultan. The allies, who were in want of stores, now separated, Codrington going to Zante and de Rigny to Cervi, where his store ships were. Frigates were left to watch Navarino. The British admiral had barely anchored at Zante before he was informed that the sultan's forces were putting to sea. On the 29th of September a Greek naval force, commanded by an English Philhellene, Captain Frank Abney Hastings, had destroyed some Turkish vessels in Salona Bay, on the north side of the Gulf of Corinth. From the 3rd to the 5th of October Codrington, who had with him only his flagship the " Asia " (84) and some smaller vessels, was engaged in turning back the Egyptian and Turkish vessels, a task in which he was aided by a violent gale. He resumed his watch off Navarino, and on the I3th was joined by de Rigny and the Russian rear-admiral Heiden with his squadron. By general agreement among the powers the command was entrusted to Codrington, and the allied force consisted of three British, four French and four Russian sail of the line, if the French admiral's flagship the " Sirene " (60), which was technic- ally " a double banked frigate," be included. There were four British, one French and four Russian frigates, and six British and French brigs and schooners. The Egyptians and Turks had only three line of battleships and fifteen large frigates, together with a swarm of small craft which raised their total number to eighty and upwards. Ibrahim Pasha, though unable to operate at sea, considered himself at liberty to carry on the war by land. His men were actively employed in burning the Greek villages, and reducing the inhabitants to slavery. The flames and smoke of the destroyed villages were clearly seen from the allied fleet. On the I7th of October, a joint letter of expostulation was sent in to Ibrahim Pasha, but was returned with the manifestly false answer that he had left Navarino, and that his officers did not know where he was. The admirals, therefore, decided to stand into the bay and anchor among the Egyptian and Turkish ships. A French officer in the Egyptian service, of the name of Letellier, had anchored the vessels of Ibrahim and the Turkish admiral in a horseshoe formation, of which the points touched the entrance to the bay, and there were forts on the lands at both sides of the entry. The allies entered in two lines — one formed of the French and British led byCodrington in the " Asia," the other of the Russians, — and began to anchor in the free water in the midst of Ibrahim's fleet. The officer commanding the British frigate " Dartmouth " (42), Captain Fellowes, seeing a Turkish fireship close to windward of him, sent a boat with a demand that she should be removed. The Turks fired, killing Lieutenant G. W. H. Fitzroy, who brought the message, and several of the boat's crew. The " Dartmouth " then opened " a defensive fire," and the action became general at once. The allies, who were all closely engaged, were anchored among their enemies, and the result was obtained by their heavier broadsides and their better gunnery. Three-fourths of the Turkish and Egyptian vessels were sunk by the assailants, or fired by their own crews. On the allied side the British squadron lost 75 killed and 197 wounded; the French 43 killed and 183 wounded; the Russians 59 killed and 139 wounded. In the British squadron Captain Walter Bathurst of the " Genoa " (74) was slain. The loss of the Turks and Egyptians was never accurately reported, but it was certainly very great. In its effects on the international situation Navarino may be reckoned one of the decisive battles of the world. It not only made the efforts of the Turks to suppress the Greek revolt hope- less, but it made a breach difficult to heal in the traditional friendship between Great Britain and Turkey, which had its effect during the critical period of the struggle between Mehemet Ali and the Porte (1831-1841). It precipitated the Russo- Turkish war of 1828-1829, and, by annihilating the Ottoman navy, weakened the resisting power of Turkey to Russia and later to Mehemet Ali. See Memoir of Admiral Sir E. Codrington, by his daughter Lady Bourchier (London, 1873); Naval History of Great Britain, by W. James and Captain Chamier, vol. vi. (London, 1837). (D. H.) NAVARRE (Span. Navarra), an inland province of northern Spain, and formerly a kingdom which included part of France. The province is bounded on the N. by France (Basses Pyrenees) and Guipuzcoa, E. by Huesca and Saragossa, S. by Saragossa 282 NAVARRETE, J. F.— NAVARRETE, M. F. DE and Logrono and W. by Alava. It is traversed from east to west by the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, and almost the whole of the province is overrun by the ramifications of these ranges. From Navarre there are only three practicable roads for carriages into France — those by the Puerta de Vera, the Puerta de Maya and Roncesvalles. The highest summit in the province is the Monte Adi (4931 ft.). The chief river flowing towards the Atlantic is the Bidasoa, which rises near the Puerta de Maya, and after flowing southwards through the valley of Baztan takes a north-easterly course, and for a short distance above its outfall at Fuenterrabia constitutes the frontier between France and Spain (Guipuzcoa); by far the larger portion of Navarre is drained to the Mediterranean through the Ebro, which flows along the western frontier and crosses the extreme south of the province. The hilly districts consist almost entirely of forest and pasture, the most common trees being the pine, beech, oak and chestnut. Much of the lower ground is well adapted for agriculture, and yields grain in abundance; the principal fruit grown is the apple, from which cider is made in some districts; hemp, flax and oil are also produced, and mulberries are cultivated for silkworms. The wine trade is active, and the products of the vineyards are in great demand in south-west France and at Passages in Guipuzcoa for mixing with French wines. Navarre is one of the richest provinces of Spain in live stock. Game, both large and small, is plentiful in the mountains, and the streams abound with trout and other fish. Gypsum, limestone, freestone and marble are quarried; there are also mines of copper, lead, iron, zinc and rock salt. Mineral and thermal springs are numerous, but none is of more than local fame. The other industries include manufactures of arms, paper, chocolate, candles, alcohol, leather, coarse linens and cloth. The exports both by rail and by the passes in the Pyrenees consist of live stock, oil, wine, wool, leather and paper. The Ebro Valley railway, which traverses southern Navarre and skirts the western frontier, sends out a branch line from Castejon to Pamplona and Alsasua junction, where it connects with the Northern railways from Madrid to France. Narrow- gauge railways convey timber and ore from the mountains to these main lines. Pamplona, the capital (pop., 1900, 28,886), and Tudela (9449) are described in separate articles. The only other towns with more than 5000 inhabitants are Baztan (9234), Corella (6793), Estella (5736) and Tafalla (5494). History. — The kingdom of Navarre was formed out of a part of the territory occupied by the Vascones, i.e. the Basques and Gascons, who occupied the southern slope of the western Pyrenees and part of the shore of the Bay of Biscay. In the course of the 6th century there was a considerable emigration of Basques to the north of the Pyrenees. The cause is supposed to have been the pressure put upon them by the attacks of the Visigoth kings in Spain. Yet the Basques maintained their independence. The name of Navarre is derived by etymologists from " nava " a flat valley surrounded by hills (a commonplace name in Spain ; cf . Navas de Tolosa to the south of the Sierra Morena) and " erri " a region or country. It began to appear as the name of part of Vasconia towards the end of the Visigoth epoch in Spain in the 7th century. Its early history is more than obscure. In recent times ingenious attempts have been made to trace the descent of the first historic king of Navarre from one Semen Lupus, duke of Aquitaine in the 6th century. The reader may consult La Vasconie by Jean de Jaurgain (Paris, 1898) for the latest example of this reconstruction of ancient history from fragmentary and dubious materials. Jaurgain has been subjected to very damag- ing criticism by L. Barrau-Dihigo (Revue Hispanique, t. vii. 141). The first historic king of. Navarre was Sancho Garcia, who ruled at Pamplona in the early years of the loth century. Under him and his immediate successors Navarre reached the height of its power and its extension' (see SPAIN: History, for the reign of Sancho el Mayor, and the establishment of the Navarrese line as kings of Castile and Leon, and of Aragon). When the kingdom was at its height it included all the modern province of the name; the northern slope of the western Pyrenees called by the Spaniards the " Ultra-puertos " or country beyond the passes, and now known as French Navarre; the Basque provinces; the Bureba, the valley between the Basque Mountains and the Monies de Oca to the north of Burgos; the Rioja and Tarazona in the upper valley of the Ebro. In the i2th century the kings of Castile gradually annexed the Rioja and Alava. While Navarre was reunited to Aragon — 1076-1134 — (see SPAIN: History) it was saved from aggression on the east, but did not recover the territory taken by Castile. About the year 1200 Alfonso VIII. of Castile annexed the other two Basque provinces, Biscay (Vizcaya) and Guipuzcoa. Tarazona re- mained in possession of Aragon. After 1 234 Navarre, though the crown was claimed by the kings of Aragon, passed by marriage to a succession of French rulers. In 1516 Spanish Navarre was finally annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic. French Navarre survived as an independent little kingdom till it was united to the crown of France by Henry IV. founder of the Bourbon dynasty. From 1510 until 1833, when it was fully incorporated with Spain, Navarre was a viceroyalty. As originally organized, Navarre was divided into Merindades, or districts, governed by a Merino (mayorino) as representative of the king. They were the Ultrapuertos (French Navarre), Pamplona, Estella, Judela, Sanguesa. In 1407 Olite was added. The Cortes of Navarre began with the king's council of churchmen and nobles. But in the course of the I4th century the burgesses were added. Their presence was due to the fact that the king had need of their co-operation to raise money by grants and aids. When fully con- stituted, the Cortes consisted of the churchmen, the nobles and the representatives of twenty-seven " good towns " — that is to say, towns which had no feudal lord, and, therefore, held directly of the king. In the later stages of its history the Cortes of Navarre included the representatives of thirty-tight towns. The independence of the burgesses was better secured in Navarre than in other parliaments of Spam by the constitutional rule which required the consent of a majority of each order to every act of the Cortes. Thus the bmgesses could not be outvoted by the nobles and the Church. Even in the 1 8th century the Navarrese successfully resisted the attempt of the kings of the Bourbon dynasty to establish custom houses on the French frontier. Yet they were loyal to their Spanish sovereigns, and no part of the country offered a more determined or more skilful resistance to Napoleon. Navarre was much under clerical influence. This, and the resentment felt at the loss of their autonomy when they were incorporated with the rest of Spain in 1833, account for the strong support given by many Navarrese to the Carlist cause. See Historia Compendiada de Navarra by Don J. M. Yanguas, (San Sebastian, 1832). NAVARRETE, JUAN FERNANDEZ (1526-1579), surnamed El Mudo (The Mute), Spanish painter of the Madrid school, was born at Logrono in 1526. An illness in infancy deprived him of his hearing, but at a very early age he began to express his wants by sketching objects with a piece of charcoal. He received his first instructions in art from Fray Vicente de Santo Domingo, a Hieronymite monk at Estella, and afterwards he visited Naples, Rome, Florence and Milan. According to the ordinary account he was for a considerable time the pupil of Titian at Venice. In 1 568 Philip II. summoned him to Madrid with the title of king's painter and a salary, and employed him to execute pictures for the Escorial. The most celebrated of the works he there pro- duced are a " Nativity " (in which, as in the well-known work on the same subject by Correggio, the light emanates from the infant Saviour), a "Baptism of Christ" (now in the Madrid Picture Gallery) , and " Abraham Receiving the Three Angels " (one of his last performances, dated 1576). He executed many other altarpieces, all characterized by boldness and freedom in design, and by the rich warm colouring which has acquired for him the surname of " the Spanish Titian." He died at Toledo in February 1579- NAVARRETE, MARTIN FERNANDEZ DE (1765-1844), Spanish historian, was born at Abalos on the gth of November 1765, and entered the navy in 1780. He was engaged in the unsuccessful operations against Gibraltar in 1782, and afterwards in the suppression of Algerine pirates. Ill-health compelled him for a time to withdraw from active service, but he devoted this :orced leisure to historical research, and in 1789 he was appointed the crown to examine the national archives relating to the maritime history of Spain. Rejoining the navy in 1793, he was present at the siege of Toulon, and afterwards received command of a frigate. From 1797 to 1808 he held in succession various NAVARRO— NAVE 283 important posts in the ministry of marine. In 1808 the French invasion led to his withdrawal to Andalusia, and the rest of his life was entirely devoted to literature. In 1819 appeared, as an appendix to the Academy's edition of Don Quijote, his Vida de Cervantes, and in 1825 the first two volumes of the Coleccion de los Viajes y Descubrimientos que hicieron por Mar los Espanoles desde fines del Siglo XV. (3rd vol., 1829; 4th vol., 1837). In 1837 he was made a senator and director of the academy of history. At the time of his death, on the 8th of October 1844, he was assisting in the preparation of the Coleccion de Docu- menlos Ineditos para la Historia de Espana. His Disertacion sobre la Historia de la Nautica (1846) and Biblioteca Maritima Espanola (1851). were published posthumously. NAVARRO, PEDRO (c. 1460-1528), Spanish military engineer and general, of obscure parentage, was born probably about 1460. He began life as a sailor; and was employed later as mozo de espuela, or running footman, by the Cardinal Juan de Aragon; on the death of his employer in 1485 he enlisted as a mercenary in a war between Florence and Genoa; and was sub- sequently engaged for some years in the warfare between the Genoese corsairs and the Mahommedans of Northern Africa. Navarro was not more scrupulous than others, for in 1499 he was at Civitavecchia, recovering from a gunshot wound in the hip received in a piratical attack on a Portuguese trading ship. When Gonsalvo de Cordoba was sent to Sicily, to take part with the French in the partition of Naples, Navarro enlisted under him; and in the expulsion of the Turkish garrison from Cepha- lonia in 1500 he helped by laying mines to breach the walls, though not at first with much success. The Spanish commander gave him a captain's commission. During the campaigns of 1502 and 1503 he came to the front among the Spanish officers by the defence of Canosa and of Taranto, by his activity in partisan warfare on the French lines of communication, and by the part he took in winning the battle of Cerinola. But his great reputation among the soldiers of the time was founded on the vigour and success of his mining operations against the castles of Naples, held by French garrisons, in 1503, and he was undoubtedly recognized as the first military engineer of his age. When the French were expelled from Naples he received from Gonsalvo a grant of land and the title of count of Olivette. In 1506 he was in Spain, and for several years he was employed in wars on the north coast of Africa. In 1508 he took Velez de Gomera, largely by means of a species of floating battery which he invented. In 1509 he accompanied Ximenez in the conquest of Oran, and did excellent service. Till 1511 he continued in service in Africa, and took Bougie and Tripoli in 1510. The disasters at Gerba and Kerkenna did not materially affect his reputation. There was some talk of appointing him to command the army of the league formed against the French in 1512; but his humble birth was thought to disqualify him. He was, however, sent as a subordinate general. At the battle of Ravenna he covered the orderly retreat of the Spanish foot, and was struck from his horse by a shot which failed to pierce his armour. Being taken prisoner by the French, he was sent to the Castle of Loches. Ferdinand, whom the soldiers called an Aragonese skinflint, would not pay his ransom, and after three years of imprisonment he entered the service of Francis I. in a pique. The rest of his life was spent as a French officer. He distin- guished himself in the passage of the Alps, at the battle of Marignano, by the taking of the citadel of Milan, and in the long siege of Brescia. He was at the battle of Pa via, and in 1522 was taken prisoner at Genoa by his own countrymen. He was confined at Naples till the peace of 1526, but beyond the confisca- tion of his estate at Olivette no punishment was inflicted for his treason. His last service was in the disastrous expedition of Lautrec to Naples in 1527, which was ruined by the plague. He died near the end of 1528. A life of Navarro by Don Martin de los Heros, is published in the Documentos insditos para la Historia de Espana, vol. xxv. (Madrid, 1854). NAVE, ecclesiastically considered, that part of a church appropriated to the laity as distinguished from the chancel, the choir or the presbytery, reserved for the clergy. In a 14th- century letter (quoted in Gasquet's Parish Life in Medieval England, 1906, p. 45) from a bishop of Coventry and Lichfield to one of his clergy, the reason for this appropriation is given. " Not only the decrees of the holy fathers but the approved existing customs of the Church order that the place in which the clerks sing and serve God according to their offices be divided by screens from that in which the laity devoutly pray. In this way the nave of the church ... is alone to be open to lay people, in order that, in the time of divine service, clerics be not mixed up with lay people, and more especially with women, nor have communication with them, for in this way devotion may be easily diminished." The word " nave " has been generally derived from Lat. navis, ship. Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. " Navis ") quotes from the Chronicon Moriniacense, of the 1 2th century, as to the popular origin of the name, Exterius etiam tabernaculum, quod ecclesiae navis a populo wcalur .... Salmasius in his commentary on Solinus (1629) finds the origin in the resemblance of the vaulted roof to the keel of a ship, and refers to Sallust (Jugurlha, 18. 8) where is noticed a similar resemblance in the huts (mapalia) of the Numidians. The use of the word navis may, however, be due to the early adoption of the " ship " as a symbol of the church (see Skeat's note on Piers Plowman, xl. 32). The Greek i>abs, Attic vecos (vaitiv, to dwell), the inner shrine of a Greek temple, the cella, has also been suggested as the real origin of the word. This derivative must presume a latinized corruption into navis, for the early application of the word for ship to this part of a church building is undoubted.1 Architecturally considered the nave is the central and principal part of a church, extending from the main front to the transepts, or to the choir or chancel in the absence of transepts. When the nave is flanked by aisles, light is admitted to the church through clerestory windows, some of the most ancient examples being the basilica at Bethlehem and the church of St Elias, at Thessalonica, both of the sth century; numerous churches in Rome; and in the 6th century the two great basilicas at Ravenna; in all these cases the sills of the clerestory windows were raised sufficiently to allow of a sloping roof over the side aisles. When, however, a gallery was carried above the side aisles, another division was required, which is known as the triforium, and this subdivision was retained in the nave even when it formed a passage, only in the thickness of the wall. In Late Gothic work in England, the triforium was suppressed altogether to give more space for the clerestory windows, and roofs of low pitch were provided over the side aisles. The longest nave in England is that of St Albans (300 ft.), in which there are thirteen nave arches or bays on each side; in Winchester (264 ft.) there are twelve bays; in Norwich (250 ft.) fourteen; Peterborough (226 ft.) eleven; and Ely (203 ft.) twelve bays. Most of these dimensions are in excess of those of the French cathedrals; Bourges is 300 ft. long, but as there are no transepts this dimension includes nave and choir. Cluny was 230 ft. with eleven bays; Reims is 235 ft. with ten bays; Paris 170 ft. with ten bays; Amiens 160 with ten bays; and St Ouen, Rouen, 200 ft. with ten bays. In Germany the nave of Cologne cathedral is only 190 ft., including the two bays between the towers. The cathedral at Seville in Spain is 200 ft. long, with only five bays. In Italy the cathedral at Milan is 270 ft. long with nine bays; at Florence, 250 ft. long with only four bays; and St Peter's in Rome 300 ft. long with four bays. On the other hand, the vaults in the nave of the con- tinental cathedrals are far higher than those in England, that of Westminster Abbey being only 103 ft. high, whilst the choir of Beauvais is 150 ft. The result is that the naves of the English cathedrals not only are longer in actual dimensions, but appear much longer in consequence of their inferior height. 1 Vessels resembling boats or ships are familiar in medieval art and later. Thus " Incense-boats " (navettes) somewhat of this shape are found in 12th-century sculptures. By the i6th century they approximated still more closely to a model of a ship. A large vessel, also in the shape of a boat or ship, and known as a nef, was used at the table of princes and great personages to contain the knives, spoons, &c. Some very elaborate examples of these survive, such as the 15th-century nef of St Ursula in the treasure of the cathedral at Reims, and that of Charles V. of France in the Mus£e Cluny. _ A 16th-century nef, adapted for use as a cup, is in the Franks Collection at the British Museum. (See DRINKING VESSELS.) 284 NAVEL— NAVIGATION NAVEL ( O. Eng. nafela, a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Nabel, Swed. nafvel; the Sanskrit is ndbhila; the English root is also seen in " nave," the hub of a wheel), in anatomy, the umbilicus (Gr. 6/LiaX6s), the depression in the abdomen which indicates the point through which the embryo mammal obtained nourishment from its mother (see ANATOMY: section Superficial and Artistic). NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move), the science or art of conducting a ship across the seas. The term is also popularly used by analogy of boats on rivers, &c., and of flying-machines or similar methods of locomotion. Navigation, as an art applied properly to ships, is technically used in the restricted sense dealt with below, and has therefore to be distinguished from " seamanship " (?.!>.), or the general methods of rigging a ship (see RIGGING), or the management of sails, rudder, &c. History. The early history of the rise and progress of the art of naviga- tion is very obscure, and it is more easy to trace the gradual advance of geographical knowledge by its means than the growth of the practical methods by which this advance was attained. Among Western nations before the introduction of the mariner's compass the only practical means of navigating ships was to keep in sight of land, or occasionally, for short distances, to direct the ship's course by referring it to the sun or stars; this very rough mode of procedure failed in cloudy weather, and even in short voyages in the Mediterranean in such circumstances the navigator generally became hopelessly bewildered as to his position. Over the China Sea and Indian Ocean the steadiness in direc- tion of the monsoons was very soon observed, and by running directly before the wind vessels in those localities were able to traverse long distances out of sight of land in opposite directions at different seasons of the year, aided in some cases by a rough compass (q.v.). But it is surprising when we read of the progress made among the ancients in fixing positions on shore by practical astronomy that so many years should have passed without its application to solving exactly the same problems at sea, but this is probably to be explained by the difficulty of devising instruments for use on the unsteady platform of a ship, coupled with the lack of scientific education among those who would have to use them. The association of commercial activity and nautical progress shown by the Portuguese in the early part of the i$th century marked an epoch of distinct progress in the methods of practical navigation, and initiated that steady improvement which in the 2oth century has raised the art of navigation almost to the position of an exact science. Up to the time of the Portuguese exploring expeditions, sent out by Prince Henry, generally known as the " Navigator," which led to the discovery of the Azores in 1419, the rediscovery of the Cape Verde Islands in 1447 and of Sierra Leone in 1460, navigation had been conducted in the most rude, uncertain and dangerous manner it is possible to conceive. Many years had passed without the least improve- ment being introduced, except the application of the magnetic needle about the beginning of the i4th century (see COMPASS and MAGNETISM). Prince Henry did all in his power to bring together and systematize the knowledge then obtainable upon nautical affairs, and also established an observatory at Sagres (near Cape St Vincent) in order tc obtain more accurate tables of the declination of the sun. John II., who ascended the throne of Portugal in 1481, followed up the good work. He employed Roderick and Joseph, his physicians, with Martin de Bohemia, from Fayal, to act as a committee on navigation. They calcu- lated tables of the sun's declination, and improved the astrolabe, recommending it as more convenient than the cross-staff. The Ordenanzas of the Spanish council of the Indies record the course of instruction prescribed at this time for pilots; it included the De Sphaera Mundi of Sacrobosco, the spherical triangles of Regiomontanus, the Almagest of Ptolemy, the use of the astrolabe and its mechanism, the adjustments of instruments, cartography and the methods of observing the movements of heavenly bodies. The then backward state of navigation is best understood from a sketch of the few rude appliances which the mariner had, and even these were only intended for the purpose of ascertaining the latitude. The mystery of finding the longitude proved unfathomable for many years after the time of the Armada, and the very inaccurate know- ledge existing of the positions of the heavenly bodies themselves fully justified the quaintly expressed advice given in a nautical work of repute at the time, where the writer observes, " Now there be some that are very inquisitive to have a way to get the longitude, but that is too tedious for seamen, since it requireth the deep knowledge of astronomy, wherefore I would not have any man think that the longitude is to be found at sea by any instrument ; so let no seamen trouble themselves with any such rule, but (according to their accustomed manner) let them keep a perfect account and reckoning of the way of their ship." Such record of the " way of the ship ' appears to have been then and for many years later recorded in chalk on a wooden board (log board), which folded like a book, and from which each day a position for the ship was deduced, or from which the more careful made abstracts into what was termed the " journal." A compass, a cross-staff or astrolabe, a fairly good table of the sun's declination, a correction for the altitude of the pole star, and occasionally a very incorrect chart formed all the appliances of a navigator in the time of Columbus. For a knowledge of the speed of the ship one of the earliest methods of actual measurement in use was by what was known as the " Dutchman's log," which consisted in throwing into the water, from the bows of the ship, something which would float, and noting the interval between its apparently drifting past two observers standing on the deckat a known distance apart. No other method is mentioned until 1577, when a line was attached to a small log of wood, which was thrown overboard, and the length measured which was carried over in a certain interval of time; this interval of time was, we read, generally obtained by the repetition of certain sentences, which were repeated twice if the ship were only moving slowly. It is unfortunate that the words of this ancient shibboleth are unknown. This is mentioned by Purchas as being in occasional use in 1607, but the more usual method (as we incidentally see in the voyages of Columbus) was to estimate or guess the rate of progress. It was customary by one or other of these methods to determine the speed of a ship every two hours, " royal " ships and those with very careful captains doing so every hour. When a vessel had been on various courses during the two hours, a record of the duration on each was usually kept by the helmsman on a traverse board, which consisted of a board having 32 radial lines drawn on it representing the points of the compass, with holes at various distances from the centre, into which pegs were inserted, the mean or average course being that entered on the log board. Some idea of the speed of ordinary ships in those days may be gathered from an observation in 1551 of a " certain shipp which, without ever striking sail, arrived at Naples from Drepana, in Sicily, in 37 hours " (a distance of 200 m.) ; the writer accounting for " such swift motion, which to the common sort of man scemeth incredible," by the fact of the occurrence of " violent floods and outrageous winds." In 1578 we find in Bourne's Inventions and Devices a description of a proposed patent log for recording a vessel's speed, the idea (as far as we can gather from its vague description) being to register the revolutions of a wheel enclosed in a case towed astern of a ship (see LOG). Whether the property of the lodestone was independently dis- covered in Europe or introduced from the East, it does not appear to have been generally utilized in Europe earlier than about A.D. 1400 (see COMPASS). In Europe the card or " flie " appears to have been attached to the magnet from the first, and the whole suspended as now in gimbal-rings within the " bittacle," or, as we now spell the word, " binnacle." The direction of a ship's head by compass was termed how she " capes." From the accounts extant of the stores supplied to ships in 1588, they appear to have usually had two compasses, costing 33. 4d. each, which were kept in charge by the boatswain. The fact that the north point of a compass does not, in most places, point to the true pole but eastward or westward of it, by an amount which is termed by sailors " variation," appears to have been noticed at an early date; but that the amount of variation varied in different localities appears to have been first observed by either Columbus or Cabot about 1490, and we find it used to be the practice to ascertain this error when at sea either from a bearing of the pole star, or by taking a mean of the compass bearings of the sun at both rising and setting, the deviation of the compass in the ships of those days being too small a quantity to be generally noticed, though there is a very suggestive remark on the effect of moving the position of any iron placed near a compass, by a Captain Sturmy of Bristol in 1679. In order, partially to obviate the error of the compass (variation), the magnets, which usually consisted of two steel wires joined at both ends and opened out in the middle, were not placed under the north and south line of the compass card, but with the ends about a point eastward of north and westward of south, the variation in London when first observed in 1580 being about 11° E. ; the change of the variation year by year at the same base was first noted by Gellibrand in 1635. The ' cross-staff " appears to have been used by astronomers at a very early period, and subsequently by seamen for measuring NAVIGATION 285 altitudes at sea. It was one of the few instruments possessed by Columbus and Vasco da Gama. The old cross-staff, called by the Spaniards " ballestilla," consisted of two light battens. The part we may call the staff was about ij in. square and 36 in. long. The cross was made to fit closely and to slide upon the staff at right angles; its length was a little over 26 in., so as to allow the " pinules " or sights to be placed exactly 26 in. apart. A sight was also fixed on the end of the staff for the eye to look through so as to see both those on the cross and the objects whose distance apart was to be measured. It was made by describing the angles on a table, and laying the staff upon it (fig. i). The scale of degrees was marked on the upper face. Afterwards shorter crosses were introduced, so that smaller angles could be taken by the same instrument. These angles were marked on the sides of the staff. To observe with this instrument a meridian altitude of the sun the bearing was taken by com- pasS| to FIG. i. when it was near the meridian ; then the end of the long staff was placed close to the observer's eye, and the transver- sary, or cross, moved until one end exactly touched the horizon, and the other the sun's centre. This was continued until the sun dipped, when the meridian altitude was obtained. Another primitive instrument in common use at the beginning of the loth century was the astrolabe (g.p.), which was more con- venient than the cross-staff for taking altitudes. Fig. 2 represents an astrolabe as described by Martin Cortes. It was made of copper or tin, about J in. in thickness and 6 or 7 in. in diameter, and was circular except at one place, where a projection was provided for a hole by which it was suspended. Weight was 'considered desirable in order to keep it steady when in use. The face of the metal having been well polished, a plumb line from the point of suspension marked the vertical line, from which were derived the horizontal line and centre. The upper left quadrant was divided into degrees. The second part was a pointer pt of the same metal and thickness as the circular plate, about i J in. wide, and in length equal to the diameter of the circle. The centre was bored, and a line was drawn across it the full length, which was called the line of confidence. On the ends of that line were fixed plates, s, s, having each a small hole, both exactly over the line of confidence, as sights for the sun or stars. The pointer moved upon a centre the size of a goose quill. When the instrument was sus- pended the pointer was directed by hand to the object, and the angle read on the one quadrant only. Some years later the opposite quadrant was also graduated, to give the benefit of a second reading. The astrolabe was used by Vasco da Gama on his first voyage pIG 2 round the Cape of Good Hope in 1497; but the movement of a ship rendered accuracy impossible, and the liability to error was increased by the necessity for three observers. One held the instrument by a ring passed over the thumb, the second measured the altitude, and the third read off. For finding latitude at night by altitude of the pole star taken by cross-staff or astrolabe, use was made of an auxiliary instrument called the " nocturnal." From the relative positions of the two stars in the constellation of the " Little Bear " farthest from the pole (known as the Fore and Hind guards) the positron of the pole star with regard to the pole could be inferred, and tables were drawn up termed the " Regiment of the Pole Star," showing for eight positions of the guards how much should be added or subtracted from the altitude of the pole star; thus, " when the guards are in the N.W. bearing from each other north and south add half a degree," &c. The bearings of the guards, and also roughly the hour of the night, were found by the nocturnal, first described by M. Coignet in 1581. The nocturnal (fig. 3) consisted of two concentric circular plates, the outer being about 3 in. in diameter, and divided into twelve equal parts corresponding to the twelve months, each being again sub- divided into groups of five days. The inner circle was graduated into twenty-four equal parts, corresponding to the hours of the day, and again subdivided into quarters; the handle was fixed to the outer circle in such a way that the middle of it corresponded with the day of the month on which the guards had the same right ascension as the sun — or, in other words, crossed the meridian at noon. From the ^ common centre of the two circles extended a long index bar, which, together with the inner circle, turned freely and independently about this centre, which was pierced with a round hole. To use the instrument, the projection at twelve hours on the inner plate was turned until it coincided with the day of the month of observation, and the instrument held with its plane roughly parallel to the equi- noctial or celestial equator, the observer looking at the pole star through the hole in the centre, and turning the long central index bar until the guards were seen just touching its edge; the hour in line with this edge read off on the inner plate was, roughly, the time. Occasionally the nocturnal was constructed so as to find the time by observations of the pointers in the Great Bear. The rough charts used by a few of the more expert navigators at the time we refer to will be more fully described later(see also MAP andGEOGRAPHY). Nautical maps or charts first appeared in Italy at the end of the I3th century, but it is said that the first seen in England was brought by Bar- tholomew Columbus in 1489. Among the earliest authors who touched upon navigation was John Werner of Nurem- berg, who in 1514, in his notes upon Ptolemy's geography, de- scribes the cross-staff as a very ancient instrument, but says that it was only then beginning to be generally introduced among seamen. He recommends measuring the distance between the moon and a star as a means of ascertain- ing the longitude; but this (though developed many years after into the method technically known as " lunars ") was at this time of no practical use owing to the then imperfect know- ledge of the true positions of the moon and stars and the non- existence of instrumental means by which such distances could be measured with the necessary accuracy. Thirty-eight years after the discovery of America, when long voyages had become comparatively common, R. Gemma Frisius wrote upon astronomy and cosmogony, with the use of the globes. His book comprised much valuable information to mariners of that day, and was translated into French fifty years later (1582) by Claude de Bossiere. The astronomical system adopted is that of Ptolemy. The following are some of the points of interest relating to navigation. There is a good description of the sphere and its circles; the obliquity of the ecliptic is given as 23° 30'. The distance between the meridians is to be measured on the equator, allowing 15° to an hour of time; longitude is to be found by eclipses of the moon and conjunctions, and reckoned from the Fortunate Islands (Azores). Latitude should be measured from the equator, not from the ecliptic, " as Clarean says." The use of globes is very thoroughly and correctly explained. The scale for measuring distances was placed on the equator, and 15 German leagues, or 60 Italian leagues, were to be considered equal to one degree. The Italian league was 8 stadia, or 1000 paces, therefore the degree is taken much too small. We are told that, on plane charts, mariners drew lines from various centres (i.e. compass courses), which were very useful since the virtue of the lodestone had become recognized; it must be remembered that parallel rulers were unknown, being invented by Mordente in 1 584. Such a confusion of lines has been continued upon sea charts till comparatively recently. Gemma gives rules for finding the course and distance correctly, except that he treats difference of longitude as departure. For instance, if the difference of latitude and difference of longitude are equal, the course prescribed is between the two principal winds — that is, 45°. He points out that the courses thus followed are not straight lines, but curves, because they do not follow the great circle, and that distances could be more correctly measured on the globe than on charts. The tide is said to rise with the moon, high water being when it is on the meridian and 12 hours later. From a table of latitudes and longitudes a few examples are here selected, by which it appears that even latitude was much in error. The figures in brackets 286 NAVIGATION represent the positions according to modern tables, counting the longitude from the western extremity of St Michael. (Flores is 5° 8' farther west.) Alexandria 31° o' N. (31' (37 Alexandria 31° o'N. Athens 37 15 Babylon 35 o Dantzic 54 3« London 52 3 Malta 34 0 Rome 41 50 (35 (41 13') 58) 32 21) 31) 43) 54) 60° 30' E. 52 45 79 o 44 15 19 15 38 45 36 20 (55° 55') (49 46) (70 25) (44 38) 25 54 (4° 3i) (38 30) The latitude of Cape Clear is given 34' in error, and the longitude 45°; the Scilly Islands are given with an error of one degree in latitude and i°' 10' in longitude; while Madeira is placed 3° 8' too far south and 4° 20' too far west, and Cape St Vincent i° 25' too far south and 6° too far west. In 1534 Gemma produced an " astronomical ring," which he dedicated to the secretary of the king of Hungary. He admitted that it was not entirely his own invention, but asserted that it could accomplish all that had been said of quadrants, cylinders and astrolabes — also that it was a pretty ornament, worthy of a prince. As it displayed great ingenuity, and was followed by many similar contrivances during two centuries, a sketch with brief description is here given (fig. 4). The outer and principal sustaining circle EPQ represents the meridian, and is about 6 in. in diameter; PIT, are the poles. The upper quadrant is divided into degrees. It is sus- pended by fine cord or wire placed at the sup- posed latitude. The second circle EQ is fixed at right angles to the first, and represents the equinoctial line. The upper side is divided into twenty-four parts, repre- senting the hours from noon or midnight. On the inner side of that circle are marked the months and weeks. The third ring CC is attached to the first at the poles, and revolves freely within it. On the interior are marked the months, and on another side the cor- responding signs of the zodiac ; another is gradu- ated in degrees. It is fitted with a groove On the fourth side are FIG. 4. which carries two movable sights, twenty-four unequal divisions (tangents) for measuring heights. Its use is illustrated by twenty problems, showing it capable of doing roughly all that any instrument for taking angles can. Thus, to find the latitude, set the sights C, C to the place of the sun in the zodiac, and shut the circle till it corresponds with 12 o'clock. Look through the sights and alter the point of suspension till the greatest elevation is attained ; that time will be noon, and the point of sus- pension will be the latitude. The figure is represented as slung at fat. 40", either north or south. To find the hour of the day, the latitude and declination being known: the sights C, C being set to the declination as before, and the suspension on the latitude, turn the ring CC freely till it points to the sun, when the index opposite the equinoctial circle will indicate the time, while the meridional circle will coincide with the meridian of the place. There is in the museum attached to the Royal Naval College at Greenwich an instrument described as Sir Francis Drake's astrolabe. It is not an astrolabe, but may be a combination of astronomical rings as invented by Gemma with additions, probably of a later date. It has the appearance of a large gold watch, about 25 in. in diameter, and contains several parts which fall back on hinges. One is a sun-dial, the gnomon being in connexion with a graduated quadrant, by which it could be set to the latitude of the place. There are a small compass and an hour circle. It is very neat, but too small for actual use, and may be simply an ornament representing a larger instrument. There is a table of latitudes engraved inside one lid; that given for London is 51° 34', about 3 m. too much. Though clocks are mentioned in 1484 as recent inventions, watches were unknown till about 1530, when Gemma seized the idea of utilizing them for the purpose of ascertaining the difference of Idngitude between two places by a comparison between their local times at the same instant. They were too inaccurate, however, to be of practical use, and their advocate proposed to correct them by water-clocks cr sand-clocks. For rough purposes of keeping time on board ship sand glasses were em- ployed, and it is curious to note that hour and half-hour glasses were used for this purpose in the British Navy until 1839. The outer margin of the compass card was early divided into twenty- four equal parts numbered as hours until the error of thus determining time by the bearings of the sun was pointed out by Davis in 1607. In 1537 Pedro Nunez (Nonius), cosmographer to the king of Portugal, published a work on astronomy, charts and some points of navigation. He recognized the errors in plane charts, and tried to rectify them. Among many astronomical problems given is one for finding the latitude of a place by knowing the sun's declination and altitude when on two bearings, not less than 40° apart. Gemma did a similar thing with two stars; therefore the problem now known as a " double altitude " is a very old one. It could be mechanically solved on a large globe within a degree. To Nunez has been erroneously attributed the present mode of reading the exact angle on a sextant, the scale of a barometer, &c., the credit of which is due, however, to Vernier nearly a hundred years later. The mode of dividing the scale which Nunez published in 1542 was the following. The arc of a' large quadrant was fumished with forty-five con- centric segments, or scales, the outer graduated to 90°, the others to 89, 88, 87, &c., divisions. As the fine edge of the pointer attached to the sights passed among those numerous divisions it touched one of them, suppose the fifteenth division on the sixth scale, then the angle was ££ of 90° =15° 52' 56". This was a laborious method; Tycho Brahe tried it, but aban- doned it in favour of the diagonal lines then in common use, and still found on all scales of equal parts. In 1545 Pedro de Medina published Arte de navigar at Valla- dolid, dedicated to Don Philippe, prince of Spain. This appears to be the first book ever published professedly entirely on naviga- tion. It was soon translated into French and Italian, and many years after into English by John Frampton. Though this pre- tentious work came out two years after the death of Copernicus, the astronomy is still that of Ptolemy. The general appearance of the chart given of the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and part of the Pacific is in its favour, but examination shows it to be very incorrect. A scale of equal parts, near the centre of the chart, extends from the equator to what is intended to represent 75° of latitude; by this scale London would be in 55° instead of 515°, Lisbon in 375° instead of 38° 42'. The equator is made to pass along the coast of Guinea, instead of being over four degrees farther south. The Gulf of Guinea extends 14° too far east, and Mexico is much too far west. Though there are many vertical lines on the chart at unequal distances they do not represent meridians; and there is no indication of longi- tude. A scale of 600 leagues is given (German leagues, fifteen to a degree). By this scale the distance between Lisbon and the city of Mexico is 1740 leagues, or 6960 miles; by the vertical scale of degrees it would be about the same; whereas the actual distance is 4820 miles. Here two great wants become apparent — a knowledge of the actual length of any arc, and the means of representing the surface of the globe on flat paper. There is a table of the sun's declination to minutes; on June I2th and December nth (o.s.) it was given as 23° 33'. The directions for finding the latitude by the pole star and pointers appear good. For general astronomical information the book is inferior to that of Gemma. In 1556 Martin Cortes published at Seville Arte de navigar. He gives a good drawing of the cross-staff and astrolabe, also a table of the sun's declination for four years (the greatest value being 23° 33'), and a calendar of saints' days. The motions of the heavens are described according to the notions then prevalent, the earth being considered as fixed. He recommends NAVIGATION 287 the altitude of the pole being found frequently, as the esti- mated distance run was imperfect. He devised an instrument whereby to tell the hour, the direction of the ship's head, and where the sun would set. A very correct table is given of the distances between the meridians at every degree of latitude, whereby a seaman could easily reduce the difference of longitude to departure. In the rules for finding the latitude by the pole star, that star is supposed to be 3° from the pole. Martin Cortes attributes the tides entirely to the influence of the moon, and gives instructions for finding the time of high water at Cadiz, when by means of a card with the moon's age on it, revolving within a circle showing the hours and minutes, the time of high water at any other place for which it was set would be indicated. Directions are given for making a compass similar to those then in common use, also for ascertaining and allowing for the varia- tion. The east is here spoken of as the principal point, and marked by a cross. The third part of Martin Cortes's work is upon charts; he laments that wise men do not produce some that are correct, and that pilots and mariners will use plane charts which are not true. In the Mediterranean and " Channel of Flanders" the want of good charts is (he says) less inconvenient, as they do not navigate by the altitude of the pole. As some subsequent writers have attributed to Cortes the credit of first thinking of the enlargement of the degrees of latitude on Mercator's principle, his precise words may be cited. In making a chart, it is recommended to choose a well-known place near the centre of the intended chart, such as Cape St Vincent, which call 37°, " and from thence towards the Arctic pole the degrees increase; and from thence to the equinoctial line they go on decreasing, and from the line to the Antarctic pole increasing." It would appear at first sight that this implied that the degrees increased in length as well as being called by a higher number, but a specimen chart in the book does not justify that conclusion. It is from 34° to 40°, and the divisions are unequal, but evidently by accident, as the highest and lowest are the longest. He states that the Spanish scale was formed by counting the Great Berling as 3° from Cape St Vincent (it is under af °). Twenty English leagues are equal to 175 Spanish or 25 French, and to 1° of latitude. Cortes was evidently at a loss to know the length of a degree, and consequently the circumference of the globe. The degrees of longitude are not laid down, but for a first meridian we are told to draw a vertical line " through the Azores, or nearer Spain, where the chart is less occupied." It is impossible in such circumstances to understand or check the longitudes assigned to places at that period. Martin Cortes's work was held in high estima- tion in England for many years, and appeared in several translations. A reprint, with additions, of Richard Eden's (1561), by John Tapp and published in 1609, gives an improved table of the sun's declination from 1609 to 1625 — the maximum value being 23° to 30'. The declinations of the principal stars, the times of their passing the meridian, and other improved tables, are given, with a very poor traverse table for eight points. The cross-staff, he said, was in most common use; but he recommends Wright's sea quadrant. William Cuningham published in 1559 a book called his Astronomical Glass, in which he teaches the making of charts by a central meridional line divided into equal parts, with other meridians on each side, distant at top and bottom in proportion to the departure at the highest and lowest latitude, for which purpose a table of departures is given very correctly to the third place of sexagesimals. The chart would be excellent were it not that the parallels are drawn straight instead of being curved. In another example, which shows one-fourth of the sphere, the meridians and parallels are all curved; it would be good were it not that the former are too long. The hemisphere is also shown upon a projection approaching the stereographic; but the eighteen meridians cut the equator at equal distances apart instead of being nearer together towards the primitive. He gives the drawing of an instrument like an astrolabe placed horizontally, divided into 32 points and 360 degrees, and carrying a small magnetic needle to be used as a prismatic compass, or even as a theodolite. In 1581 Michael Coignet of Antwerp published sea charts, and also a small treatise in French, wherein he exposes the errors of Medina, and was probably the first who said that rhumb lines form spirals round the pole. He published also tables of declina- tion of the sun and observed the gradual decrease in the obliquity of the ecliptic. He described a cross-staff with three transverse pieces, which was then in common use at sea. Coignet died in 1623. The Dutch published charts made up as atlases as early as 1584, with a treatise on navigation as an introduction. In 1585 Roderico Zamorano, who was then lecturer at the naval college at Seville, published a concise and clearly-written com- pendium of navigation; he follows Cortes in the desire to obtain better charts. Andres Garcia de Cespedes, the successor of Zamorano at Seville, published a treatise on navigation at Madrid in 1606. In 1592 Petrus Plancius published his universal map, containing the discoveries in the East and West Indies and towards the north pole. It possessed no particular merit; the degrees of latitude are equal, but the distances between the meridians are varied. He made London appear in 51° 32' N. and long. 22°, by which his first meridian should have been more than 3° east of St Michael. For Mercator's great improvements in charts at about this date see MAP; from facsimiles of his early charts in Jomard, Les Monuments de la geographic, the following measurements have been made. A general chart in 1569 of North America, from lat. 25° to lat. 79°, is 2 ft. long north and south, and 20 in. wide. Another of the same date, from the equator to 60° south lat. is 15-8 in. long. The charts agree with each other, a slight allowance being made for remeasuring. As compared with J. Inman's table of meridional parts, the spaces between the parallels are all too small. Between o° and 10° the error is 8' ; at 20° it is 5'; at 30°, 16'; at 40°, 39'; at 50°, 61'; at 60°, 104'; at 70°, 158' ; and at 79°, 182' — that is, over three degrees upon the whole chart. As the measures are always less than the truth it is possible that Mercator was afraid to give the whole. In a chart of Sicily by Romoldus Mercator in 1589, on which two equal degrees of latitude, 36° to 38°, extend 95 in., the degree of longitude is quite correct at one-fourth from the top; the lower part is r m. too long. One of the north of Scotland, published in 1595, by Romoldus, measures 103 in. from 58° 20' to 61° ; the divisions are quite equal and the lines parallel; it is correct at the centre only. A map of Norway, 1595, lat. 60° to 70° = g£ in., has the parallels curved and equidistant, the meridians straight converging lines; the spaces between the meridians at 60° and 70° are quite correct. In 1594 Blundeville published a description of Mercator's charts and globes; he confesses to not having known upon what rule the meridians were separated by Mercator, unless upon such a table as that given by Wright, whose table of meridional parts is published in the same book, also an excellent table of sines, tangents and secants — the former to seven figures, the latter to eight. These are the tables made originally by Regiomontanus and improved by Clavius. In 1594 the celebrated navigator John Davis published a pamphlet of eighty pages, in black letter, entitled The Seaman's Secrets, in which he proposes to give all that is necessary for sailors — not for scholars on shore. He defines three kinds of sailing: horizontal, paradoxical and great circle. His horizontal sailing consists of short voyages which may be delineated upon a plain sheet of paper. The paradoxical or cosmographical embraces longitude, latitude and distance — the combining many horizontal courses into' one " infallible and true," i.e. what is now called traverse and Mercator's sailings. His " paradoxical course " he describes correctly as a rhumb line which is straight on the chart and a curve on the globe. He points out the errors of the common or plane chart, and promises if spared to publish a " paradoxall chart." It is not known whether such appeared or not, but he assisted Wright in producing his chart on what is known as Mercator's projection a few years later. Great circle sailing on a globe is clearly described by Davis, and to render it more practicable he divides a long distance into several short rhumb lines quite correctly. From the practice of navigators in using globes the principles of such sailing were not unknown at an earlier date; indeed it is said that S. Cabot projected a voyage across the North Atlantic on the arc of a great circle in 1495. 288 NAVIGATION The list of instruments given by Davis as necessary to a skilful seaman comprises the sea compass, cross-staff, chart, quadrant, astrolabe, an " instrument magnetical " for finding the variation of the compass, a horizontal plane sphere, a globe and a paradoxical compass. The first three are said to be sufficient for use at sea, the astrolabe and quadrant being uncertain for sea observations. The importance of knowing the times of the tides when approaching tidal or barred harbours is clearly pointed out, also the mode of ascertain- ing them by the moon's age. A table of the sun's declination is given for noon each day during four years 1593-1597, from the ephemerides of J. Stadius. The greatest given value is 23° 28'. Several courses and distances, with the resulting difference of latitude and de- parture, are correctly worked out. A specimen log-book provides one line only for each day, but the columns are arranged similarly to those of a modern log. Under the head of remarks after leaving Brazil, we read, " the compass varied 9°, the south point westward." He states that the first meridian passed through St Michael, because there was no variation at that place, and therefore that this meridian passed through the magnetic pole as well as the pole of the earth. He makes no mention of Mercator's chart by name nor of Cortes or other writers on navigation. Rules are given for finding the latitude by two altitudes of the sun and intermediate azimuth, also by two fixed stars, using a globe. There is a drawing of a quadrant, with a plumb line, for measuring the zenith distance, and one of a modifica- tion of a cross-staff using which the observer stands with his back to the sun, looking at the horizon through a sight on the end of the staff, while the shadow of the top of a movable projection, falls on the sight; this, known as the back-staff, was an improvement on the cross-staff. It was fitted with a reflector, and was thus the first rough idea of the principle of the quadrant and sextant. This remained in common use till superseded in 1731 by Hadley's quad- rant. The eighth edition of Davis's work was printed in 1657. Edward Wright, of Caius College, Cambridge, published in 1599 a valuable work entitled Certain Errors in Navigation Detected and Corrected. One part is a translation from Roderico Zamorano; there is a chapter from Cortes and one from Nunez. A year later appeared his chart of the world, upon which both capes and the recent discoveries in the East Indies and America are laid down truthfully and scientifically, as well as his know- ledge of their latitudes and longitudes would admit. Just the northern extremity of Australia is shown. Wright said of himself that he had striven beyond his ability to mend the errors in chart, compass, cross-staff and declination of sun and stars. He considered that the instruments which had then recently come in use " could hardly be amended," as thjey were growing to " perfection " — especially the sea chart and the compass, though he expresses a hope that the latter may be " freed from that rude and gross manner of handling in the making." He gives a table of magnetic declinations (variation) and explains its geometrical construction. He states that Medina utterly denied the existence of variation, and attributed it to bad construction and bad observa- tions. Wright expresses a hope that a right understanding of the dip of the needle would lead to a knowledge of the latitude, " as the variation did of the longitude." He gives a table of declination of the sun for the use of English manners during four years — the greatest given value being 23° 31' 30*. The latitude of London he made 51 32'. For these determinations a quadrant over 6 ft. in radius was used. He also treats of the " dip " of the sea horizon, refraction, parallax and the sun's motions. With all this knowledge the earth is still considered as stationary — although Wright alludes to Copernicus, and says that he omitted to allow for parallax. Wright ascertained the declinations of thirty-two stars, and made many improvements or additions to the art of navigation, considering that all the problems could be performed trigonometrically, without globe or chart. He devised sea rings for taking observations, and a sea quadrant to be used by two persons, which is in some respects similar to that by Davis. While deploring the neglected state which navigation had been in, he rejoices that the worshipful society at the Trinity House (which had been established in 1514), under the favour of the king (Henry VIII.), had removed " many gross and dangerous enormities." He joins the brethren of the Trinity House in the desire that a lectureship should be established on navigation, as at Seville and Cadiz; also that a grand pilot should be appointed, as Sebastian Cabot had been in Spam, to examine pilots (i.e. mates) and navigators. Wright's desire was partially fulfilled in 1845, when an Act of Parliament paved the way for the compulsory qualification of masters and mates of merchant ships; but such was the opposition by shipowners that it was even then left voluntary for a few years. England was in this respect more than a century behind Holland. It has been said that Wright accompanied the earl of Cumberland to the Azores in 1589, and that he was allowed £50 a year by the East India Company as lecturer on navigation at Gresham College, Tower Street. The great mark which Wright made was the discovery of a correct and uniform method of dividing the meridional line and making charts which are still called after the name of Mercator. He considered such charts as true as the globe itself; and so they were for all practical purposes. He commenced by dividing a meridional line, in the proportion of the secants of the latitude, for every ten minutes of arc, and in the edition of his work published in 1610 his calculations are for every minute. His method was based upon the fact that the radius bears the same proportion to the secant of the latitude as the difference of longitude does to the meridional difference of latitude — a rule strictly correct for small arcs only. One minute is taken as the unit upon the arc and 10,000 as the corresponding secant, 2' becomes 20,000, 3' = 30,000, &c., increasing uniformly till 49', which is equal to 490,001; i° is 600,012. The secant of 20° is 12,251,192, and for 20° i' it will be 12,251,192+10,642 — practically the same as that used in modern tables. The principle is simply explained by fig. 5, where b is the pole and bf the meridian. At any point a a minute of longitude : a min. of lat. : : ea (the semi-diameter of the parallel) : kf (the radius). Again ea : kf : :kf:ki:: radius : sec. akf (sec. of lat). To keep this proportion on the chart, the distances between points of latitude must increase in the same proportion as the secants of the arc contained between those points e and the equator, which was then to be done by the " canon of triangles." Wright gave the following excellent popular de- scription of the principle of Mercator's charts. " Suppose a spherical globe (representing the world) inscribed in a concave cylinder to swell like a bladder equally in every part (that is as much in longitude as in latitude) until it joins g FIG. 5. itself to the concave surface of the cylinder, each parallel in- creasing successively from the equator towards either pole until it is of equal diameter to the cylinder, and consequently the meridians widening apart until they are everywhere as distant from each other as they are at the equator. Such a spherical surface is thus by extension made cylindrical, and consequently a plane parallelogram surface, since the surface of a cylinder is nothing else but a plane parallelogram surface wound round it. Such a cylinder on being opened into a flat surface will have upon it a representation of a Mercator's chart of the world." This great improvement in the principle of constructing charts was adopted slowly by seamen, who, putting it as they supposed to a practical test, found good reason to be disappointed. The positions of most places in the world had been originally laid down erroneously, by very rough courses and estimated distances upon the plane chart, and from this they were transferred to the new projection, so that errors in courses and distances, really due to erroneous positions, were wrongly attributed to the new and accurate form of chart. When Napier's Canon Mirificus appeared in 1614, Wright at once recognized the value of logarithms as an aid to navigation, and undertook a translation of the book, which he did not live to publish (see NAPIER). Gunter's tables (1620) made the applica- tion of the new discovery to navigation possible, and this was done by Addison in his Arithmetical Navigation (1625), as well as by Gunter in his tables of 1624 and 1636, which gave logarithmic sines and tangents, to a radius of 1,000,000, with directions for their use and application to astronomy and navigation, and also logarithms of numbers from i to 10,000. Several editions followed, and the work retained its reputation over a century. Gunter invented the sector, and introduced the meridional line upon it, in the just proportion of Mercator's projection. The means of taking observations correctly, either at sea or on shore, was about this time greatly assisted by the invention bearing the name of Pierre Vernier, the description of which was published at Brussels in 1631. As Vernier's quadrant was divided into half degrees only, the sector, as he called it, spread over 145 degrees, and that space carried thirty equal divisions, numbered from o to 30. As each division of the sector contained 29 min. of arc, the vernier could be read to minutes. The verniers now commonly adapted to sextants can be read to 10 sees. Shortly after the invention it was recommended for use by P. Bouguer and Jorge Juan, who describe it in a treatise entitled La Construction, &c., du quadrant nouveau. About this period Gascoigne applied the telescope to the quadrant as used on shore; and Hevelius invented the tangent screw, to give slow and steady motion when near the desired position. These NAVIGATION 289 practical improvements were not applied to the rougher nautical instruments until the invention of Hadley's sextant in 1731. In 1635 Henry Gellibrand published his discovery of the annual change in variation of the needle, which was effected by compar- ing the results of his own observations with those of W. Borough and Edmund Gunter. The latter was his predecessor at Gresham College. In 1637 Richard Norwood, a sailor, and reader in mathematics, published an account of his most laudable exertions to remove one of the greatest stumbling-blocks in the way of correct navigation, that of not knowing the true length of a degree or nautical mile, in a pamphlet styled The Seaman's Practices. Norwood ascertained the latitude of a position near the Tower of London in June 1633, and of a place in the centre of York in June 1635, wif-h a sextant of more than 5 ft. radius, and, having carefully corrected the declination of the sun and allowed for refraction and parallax, made the difference of latitude 3° 28'. He then measured the distance with a chain, taking horizontal angles of all windings, and made a special table for correcting elevations and depressions. A few places which he was unable to measure he paced. His conclusion was that a degree contained 367,176 English feet; this gives 2040 yds. to a nautical mile — only about 12 yds. too much. Norwood's work went through numerous editions, and retained its popularity over a hundred years. In a late edition he says that, as there is no means of discovering the longitude, a seaman must trust to his reckoning. He recommends the knots on the log-line to be placed 51 ft. apart, as the just proportion to a mile when used with the half-minute glass. To Norwood is also attributed the discovery of the " dip " of the magnetic needle in 1576. The progress of the art of navigation was and is still of course inseparably connected with that of map and chart drawing and the correct astronomical determinations of positions on land. While as we have seen at an early period simple practical astro- nomical means of finding the latitude at sea were known and in use, no mode could be devised of finding longitude except by the rough method of estimating the run of the ship, so that the only mode of arriving at a port of destination was to steer so as to get into the latitude of such a port either to the eastward or west- ward of its supposed position, and then approach it on the parallel of its latitude. The success of this method would of course greatly depend upon the accuracy with which the longitude of such port was known. Even with the larger and more accurate instruments used in astronomical observatories on shore the means of ascertaining latitude were far in advance of those by which longitude could be obtained, and this equally applied to the various heavenly bodies themselves upon which the terrestrial positions depended, the astronomical element of declination (corresponding to latitude) being far more accurately determined than that of right ascension (corresponding to longitude). Almanacs were first published on the continent of Europe in 1457, but the earliest printed work of that kind in England is dated 1497. The only portions of their contents of use to seamen were tables of the declination of the sun, rough elements of the positions of a few stars, and tables for finding latitude by the pole star. No accurate predictions of the positions of the moon, stars and planets could, however, be made until the laws governing their movements were known, such laws of course involving a knowledge of their actual positions at different widely separated epochs. In 1699 Edmund Halley (subsequently astronomer royal), in command of the " Paramour," undertook a voyage to improve the knowledge of longitude and of the variation of the compass. The results of his voyage were the construction of the first variation chart, and proposals for finding the longitude by occultations of fixed stars. The necessity for having more correct charts being equalled by ie pressing need of obtaining the longitude by some simple and :orrect means available to seamen, many plans had already been thought of for this purpose. At one time it was hoped that the longitude might be directly discovered by observing the variation XIX. 10 of the compass and comparing it with that laid down on charts. In 1674 Charles II. actually appointed a commission to investigate the pretensions of a scheme of this sort devised by Henry Bond, and the same idea appears as late as 1777 in S. Dunn's Epitome. But the only accurate method of ascertaining the longitude is by knowing the difference of time at the same instant at the meridian of the observer and that of Greenwich; and till the invention and perfecting of chronometers this could only be done by finding at two such places the apparent time of the same celestial phenomenon. A class of phenomena whose comparative frequency recommended them for longitude observations, viz. the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, became known through Galileo's discovery of these bodies (1610). Tables for such eclipses were published by Dominic Cassini at Bologna in 1688, and repeated in a more correct form at Paris in 1693 by his son, who was followed by J. Pound, J. Bradley, P. W. Wargentin, and many other astronomers. But this method, though useful on land, is not suited to mariners; when W. Whiston, for example, in 1737 recommended that the satellites should be ob- served by a reflecting telescope, he did not sufficiently consider the difficulty of using a telescope at sea. Another method proposed was that of comparing the local time of the moon's crossing the meridian of the observer with the predicted time of the same event at Greenwich, the difference of the two de- pending upon the moon's motion during the time represented by the longitude; thus Herne's Longitude Unveiled (1678), proposes to find the time of the moon's meridian passage at sea by equal altitudes with the cross-staff, and then compare apparent time at ship with London time. The accuracy of this, as in the case of lunar problems, would obviously depend upon a more perfect knowledge of the laws of the moon's motion than then existed. The celebrated problem of finding longitude by lunars (or by measurement of " lunar distances ") occupied the attention of astronomers and sailors for many years before being superseded by the mere simple and accurate modern method by the use of chrono- meters, and was the principal reason for establishing the Royal Observatory at Greenwich and the subsequent publication of the Nautical Almanac. The principle was simple, depending upon the comparatively rapid movement of the moon with regard to the heavenly bodies lying in her immediate path in the heavens. It is evident that if the theory of this movement were perfectly under- stood and the positions of such heavenly bodies accurately deter- mined, the distances of the moon from those at any instant of time at Greenwich could be accurately foretold so that if such predictions were published in advance, an observer at any place in the world, by simply measuring such distances, could accurately determine the Greenwich time, a comparison of which with the local time (which in clear weather can be frequently and simply determined) would give the longitude. This, as previously mentioned, was foreseen by J. Werner as early as 1514, but very great difficulties attended its practical application for many years. Until the establishment of national astronomical observatories it was impossible to accumulate the vast number of observations necessary to fulfil the astronomical conditions, and until the invention of the sextant no instrument existed capable of use at sea which would measure the distances required with the necessary accuracy, while even up to the time when the problem had attained its greatest practical accuracy the calcula- tions involved were far too intricate for general use among those for whom it was chiefly intended. The very principles of a theory of the movements of the moon were unknown before Newton's time, when the lunar problem begins to have a chief place in the history of navigation; the places of stars were formerly derived from various and widely discrepant sources. The study of the lunar problem was stimulated by the reward of 1000 crowns offered by Philip III. of Spain in 1598 for the dis- covery of a method of finding longitude at sea; the States-general followed with an offer of 10,000 florins. But for a long time nothing practical came of this; a proposal by J. B. Morin, submitted to Richelieu in 1633, was pronounced by commissioners appointed to judge of it to be impracticable through the imperfection of the lunar tables, and the same objection applied when the question was raised in England in 1674 by a proposal of St Pierre to find the longitude by using the altitudes of the moon and two stars to find the time each was from the meridian. When the king was pressed by St Pierre, Sir J. Moore and Sir C. Wren to establish an observatory for the benefit of navigation, and especially that the moon's exact position might be calculated a year in advance, Flamsteed gave his judgment that the lunar tables then in use were quite useless, and the positions of the stars erroneous. The result was that the king decided upon establishing an observatory in Greenwich Park, and Flamsteed was appointed astronomical observer on March 4, 1675, upon a salary of £100 a year, for which also he was to instruct two boys from Christ's Hospital. While the small building in the Park was in course of erection he resided in the Queen's House (now the central part of Greenwich Hospital school), and removed to the house on the hill on the loth of July 1676, which came to be known as " Flamsteed House." The institution was placed under the surveyor-general of ordnance — perhaps because that office was then held by Sir Jonas Moore, himself an eminent mathematician. Though this was not the first observatory in Europe, it was destined to become the most useful, and has amply fulfilled the important duties for which it was 290 NAVIGATION designed. It was established to meet the exigencies of navigation, as was clearly stated on the appointment of Flamsteed, and on several subsequent occasions; we see now what an excellent foster- mother it has been to the higher branches of that science. This has been accomplished by much labour and patience; for, though originally the most suitable man in the kingdom was placed in charge, it was so starved and neglected as to be almost useless during many years. The government did not provide a single instrument. Flamsteed entered upon his important duties with an iron sextant of 7 ft. radius, a quadrant of 3 ft. radius, two telescopes and two clocks, the last given by Sir Jonas Moore. Tycho Brahe's catalogue of 777 stars, formed in about 1590, was his only guide. In 1681 he fitted a mural arc which proved a failure. Seven years after another mural arc was erected at a cost of £120, with which he set to work in earnest to verify the latitude, and to determine the position of the equinoctial point, the obliquity of the ecliptic and the right ascen- sions and declinations of the stars; he obtained the positions of 2884 which appeared in the " British catalogue " in 1723 (see FLAMSTEED, and ASTRONOMY). Flamsteed died in 1719, and was succeeded by Halley, who paid particular attention to the motions of the moon with a view to the longitude problem. A paper which he published in the Phil. Trans. (1731) shows what had been accomplished up to that date, and proves that it was still impossible to find the longitude correctly by any observation depending upon the predicted position of the moon. He repeats what he had published twenty years before in an appendix to Thomas Street's Caroline tables, which contained observations made by him (Halley) in 1683-1684 for ascertaining the moon's motion, which he thought to be the only practical method of " attaining " the longitude at sea. The Caroline tables of Street, though better than those before his time as well as those of Tycho, Kepler, Bullialdus and Horrox, were uncertain; sometimes the errors would compensate one another; at others when they fell the same way the result might lead to a position being 100 leagues in error. He hopes that the tables will be so amended that an error may scarce ever exceed 3 minutes of arc (equal to I J° of longitude). Sir Isaac Newton's tables, corrected by himself (Halley) and others up to 1713, would admit of errors of 5 minutes, when the moon was in the third and fourth quarters. He blames Flamsteed for neglecting that portion of astronomical work, as he was at the observatory more than two periods of eighteen years. He himself had at this time seen the whole period of the moon's apogee— less than nine years — during which he observed the right ascensions at her transit, with great exactness, almost fifteen hundred times, or as often as Tycho Brahe, Hevelius and Flamsteed together. He hoped to be able to compute the moon's position within 2 minutes of arc with certainty, which would reduce errors of position to 20 leagues at the equator and 15 in the Channel; he thought Hadley's quadrant might be applied to measure lunar distances at sea with the desired accuracy.1 The rise of modern navigation may be fairly dated from the invention of the sextant in 1731 and of the chronometer in 1735; the former a complete nautical observatory in itself, and the. latter an instrument which in its modern development has become an almost perfect time-keeper. It was a curious co- incidence that these two invaluable instruments were invented at so nearly the same time. Until 1731 all instruments in use at sea for measuring angles either depended on a plumb line or required the observer to look in two directions at once. Their imperfections are clearly pointed out in a paper by Pierre Bouguer (1729) which received the prize of the Paris Academy of Sciences for the best method of taking the altitude of stars at sea. Bouguer himself proposes a modification of what he calls the English quadrant, probably the one suggested by Wright and improved by Davis. Fig. 6 represents the instrument as proposed, capable of measuring fully 90° from E to N. A fixed pinule was recommended to be placed at E, through which a ray from the sun would pass to the sight C. The sight F was movable. The observer, standing with his back to the sun would look through F and C at the horizon, shifting the sight F up or down till the ray from the sun coincided with the horizon. The space from E to F would represent the altitude, and the remaining part F to N the zenith distance. The English quad- rant which this was to supersede differed in having about half the arc from E towards N, and, instead of the pinule being fixed at E, it was on a smaller arc represented by the dotted line eB, and movable. It was placed on an even number of degrees, considerably less than the altitude; the remainder was measured on the larger arc, as described. 1 Halley's observations were published posthumously in 1742, and in 1765 the commissioners of longitude paid his daughter £100 for MSS. supposed to be useful to navigation. As the moon passes the stars lying in her course through the heavens at the mean rate of 33' in one minute of time, it is obvious that an error to that amount in measuring the distance from a star would produce an error of 15 m. in longitude. As the moon's motion with regard to the sun is nearly one degree a day less, a similar error in the distance would produce still more effect. FIG. 6. Hadley's instrument, on the other band, described to the Royal Society in May 1731 (Phil. Trans.), embodies Newton's idea of bringing the reflection of one object to coincide with the direct image of the other. He calls it an octant, as the arc is actually 45°, or the eighth part of a circle; but, in consequence of the angles of incidence and reflection both being changed by a movement of the index, it measures an angle of 90°, and is graduated accordingly; the same instrument has therefore been called a quadrant. It was very slowly adopted, and no doubt there were numerous mechanical difficulties of cen- tring, graduating, &c., to be overcome before it reached per- fection. In August 1732, in pursuance of an order from the Admiralty, observations were made with Hadley's quadrant on board the " Chatham " yacht of 60 tons, below Sheer- ness, in rough weather, by persons — except the master attendant — unaccustomed to the motion; still the results were very satis- factory. A year later Hadley published (Phil. Trans., 1733) the description of an instrument for taking altitudes when the horizon is not visible. The sketch represents a curved tube or spirit-level, attached to the radius of the quadrant, since which time many attempts have been unsuccessfully made to construct some form of artificial horizon adapted to use at sea on board ship, a discovery which would greatly facilitate observations at night and at the many times when the natural or sea horizon is imperfectly visible. From the year 1714 the history of navigation in England is closely associated with that of the " Commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea," a body constituted in that year with power to grant annually sums not exceeding £2000 to assist experiments and reward minor discoveries, and also to judge on applications for much greater rewards which were from time to time offered to open competition. For a method . of determining the longitude within 60 geographical miles, to be tested by a voyage to the West Indies and back, the sum of £10,000 was offered; within 40 m., £15,000; within 30 m., £20,000. £10,000 was also to be given for a method that would determine longitude within 80 m. near the shores of greatest danger. No action seems to have been taken before 1737; the first grant made was in that year, and the last in 1815, but the board continued to exist till 1828, having disbursed in the course of its existence £101,000 in all.2 In the interval a number of other acts had been passed either dealing with the powers, constitution and funds of the commissioners or encouraging nautical discovery; thus the act 18 George II. (1745) offered £20,000 for the discovery by a British ship of the North-West Passage, and the act 16 George III. (1776) offered the same reward for a passage to the Pacific either north-west or north- east, and £5000 to any one who should approach by sea within one degree of the North Pole. All these acts were swept away in 1828, when the longitude problem had ceased to attract competitors, and voyages of discovery were nearly over. The suggestions and applications sent in to the commissioners were naturally very numerous and often very trifling; but they some- times furnish useful illustrations of the state of navigation. Thus, in a memorial by Captain H. Lanoue (1736), he records a number of recent casualties, which shows how carelessly the largest ships were then navigated. Several men-of-war off Plymouth in 1691 were 2 This total comprises the large sums awarded to Harrison and to the widow of Mayer, the cost of surveys and expeditions in various parts of the globe, large outlays on the Nautical Almanac and on subsidiary calculations and tables, rewards for new methods and solutions of problems, and many minor grants to watchmakers or for improvements in instruments. Thus Jesse Ramsden received in 1775 and later about £1600 for his improvements in graduation (q.v.), and E. Massey in 1804 got £200 for his log (see LOG). • NAVIGATION 291 wrecked through mistaking the Deadman for Berry Head. Admiral Wheeler's squadron in 1694, leaving the Mediterranean, ran on Gibraltar when they thought they had passed the Strait. Sir Cloudesley Shovel's squadron, in 1707, was lost on the rocks off Scilly, by erring in their latitude. Several transports, in 1711, were lost near the river St Lawrence, having erred 15 leagues in the reckoning during twenty-four hours. Lord Belhaven was lost on the Lizard on the 1 7th of November 1721, the same day on which he sailed from Plymouth. Many rewards were paid by the commissioners for methods by which the tedious calculations involved in " clearing the lunar distance" could be abbreviated; thus Israel Lyons (1739-1775) received £10 for his solution of this problem from the commissioners in 1769; and in 1772 he and Richard Dunthorne (1711-1775) each obtained £50. George Whichell, master of the Royal Naval Academy, Portsmouth, conceived a plan whereby the correction could be taken from a table by inspection. In October 1765 the commissioners of longitude awarded him £100 to enable him to complete and print 1000 copies of his table. On the following April they gave him £200 more. The work was continued on the same plan by Antony Shepherd, the Plumian professor of astronomy, Cambridge, with some additions by the astronomer-royal. The total cost of the ponderous 4to volume up to the time of publication in June 1772 was £3100, after which £200 more was paid to the Rev. Thomas Parkinson and Israel Lyons for examining the errata. It was a very large and expensive volume — ill-adapted for ship's use. Considerable sums were paid by the commissioners from time to time for other tables to facilitate navigation — not always very judiciously. It is sufficient to mention here the tables of Michael Taylor and those of Mendoza, published in 1815. The proposals submitted to the board to find the longitude by the time of the moon's meridian passage are very numerous. , One of the first points to which the attention of the com- missioners was directed was the survey of the coasts of Great Britain, which was pressed on them by Whiston in 1737. He was appointed surveyor of coasts and headlands, and in 1741 received a grant for instruments. An act passed in 1740 enabled the commissioners to spend money on the survey of the coasts of Great Britain and the " plantations." At a later date they bore part of the expenses of Cook's scientific voyages, and of the publication of their results. Indeed it is to them that we owe all that was done by England for surveys of coasts, both at home and abroad, prior to the establishment of the hydrographic department of the Admiralty in 1795. But their chief work lay in the encouragement they gave on the one hand to the improvement of timepieces, and on the other to the perfecting of astronomical tables and methods, the latter being published from time to time in the Nautical Almanac. Before we pass on to these two important topics we may with advantage take a view of the state of practical navigation in the middle of the i8th century as shown in two of the principal treatises then current. John Robertson's Elements of Navigation passed through six editions between 1755 and 1796. It contains good teaching on arithmetic, geometry, spherical trigonometry, astronomy, geography, winds and tides, also a small useful table for correcting the middle time between the equal altitudes of the sun — all good, as is also the remark that " the greater the moon's meridian altitude the greater generally the tides will be." He states that Lacaille recommends equal altitudes being observed and worked separately, in order to find the time from noon, and the mean of the results taken as the truth. There is a sound article on chronology, the ancient and modern modes of reckoning time. A long list of latitudes, longitudes and times of high water finishes vol. i. The second volume is said by the author to treat of navigation mechanical and theoretical ; by the former he means seamanship. He gives instructions for all kinds of sailings, for marine surveying and making Mercator's chart. There are two good traverse tables, one to quarter points, the other to every 15 minutes of arc; the distance to each is 120 m. There is a table of meridional parts to minutes, which is more minute than customary. Book ix., upon what is now called " the day's work," or dead-reckoning, appears to embrace all that is necessary. A great many methods, we are told, were then used for measuring a snip's rate of sailing, but among the English the log and line with a half-minute glass were generally used. Bouguer and Lacaille pro- posed a log with a diver to avoid the drift motion (1753 and 1760). Robertson s rule of computing the equation of equal altitudes is as good as any used at the present day. He gives also a description of an equal- altitude instrument, having three horizontal wires, probably such as was used at Portsmouth for testing Harrison's timekeeper. The mechanical difficulties must have been great in preserving a perpendicular stem and a truly horizontal sweep for the telescope. It gave place to the improved sextant and artificial horizon. The second edition of Robertson's work in 1 764 contains an excellent dissertation on the rise and progress of modern navigation by Dr James Wilson, which has been greatly used by all subsequent writers. Don Jorge Juan's Compendia de Navegacion, for the use of mid- shipmen, was published at Cadiz in 1757. Chapter i. explains what pilotage is, practical and theoretical. He speaks of the change of variation, " which sailors have not believed and do not believe now." He describes the lead, log and sand-glass, the latter corrected by a pendulum, charts plane and spherical. Supposing his readers to be versed in trigonometry, he explains what latitude and longitude are, and shows a method for finding the latter different from what has been taught. He explains the error of middle latitude sailing, and shows that the longitude found by it is always less than the truth. (It is strange that while reckoning was so rough and imperfect in many respects such a trifle as that is in low latitudes should be noticed.) After speaking of meridional parts, he offers to explain the English method, which was discovered by Edmund Halley, but omits the principles upon which Halley founded his theory, as it was " too embarassing." He gives instructions for allowing for currents and leeway, tables of declination, positions of a few stars, meridional parts, &c. It is worthy of remark that, after giving a form for a log-book, he adds that this had not been previously kept by any one, but he thought it should not be trusted to memory. He only re- quires the knots, fathoms, course, wind and leeway to be marked every two hours. He gives a sketch of Halley's quadrant, but without a clamping screw or tangent screw. To ascertain local time at sea by astronomical observations by the altitude of suitably-situated heavenly bodies was an old, well-known and frequently practised operation, so that a comparison could thus be easily made between such local time and the Greenwich time if known at the same instant. The introduction of timekeepers by which Greenwich time can be carried to any part of the world, and the longitude found with ease, simplicity and certainty is due to the invention of John Harrison. The idea of keeping time at sea by watches was no novelty, but the practical difficulty arose from their very irregular rates owing to changes of temperature and the motion of the ship. Huygens had applied pendulums to the regulation of clocks on shore in 1656, and in 1675 his application of spiral springs as regulators of watches made them available for use at sea. William Derham published a scientific description of various kinds of timekeepers in The Artificial Clock-Maker, in 1700, with a table of equations from Flamsteed to facilitate comparison of mean time with that shown by the sun-dial or apparent time. In 1714 Henry Sully, an Englishman, published a treatise at Vienna, on finding time artificially. He went to France, and spent the rest of his life in trying to make a timekeeper for the discovery of the longitude at sea. In 1716 he presented a watch of his own make to the Academy of Sciences, which was approved; and ten years later he went to Bordeaux to try his marine watches, but died before embarking. Julien le Roy was his scholar, and perfected many of his inventions in watchmaking. Harrison's great invention was the principle of compensation through the unequal contraction of two metals, which he first applied in the invention in 1726 of the compensation (gridiron) pendulum, still in use, and then modified so as to fit it to a watch, devising at the same time a means by which the watch retains its motion while being wound up. With regard to the success of the trial journey (see HARRISON, JOHN) to Jamaica in 1761-1762, it may be noted that by the journal of the House of Commons we find that the error of the watch was ascertained by equal altitudes at Portsmouth and Barbados, the calculations being made by Short; these errors came greatly within the limits of the act. At Jamaica the watch was only in error five seconds (assuming that the longitude previously found by the transit of Mercury could be closely depended on, which as we now know, was not the case, the observations being too few in number, and taken with an untrustworthy instrument). Short at Portsmouth found the whole unallowed-for error from November 6th, 1761, till April and, 1762, to be In>54".5 = l8 geographical miles in the latitude of Portsmouth. During the passage home in the " Merlin " sloop-of- war the timekeeper was placed in the after part of the ship, because it was the dryest place, and there it received violent shocks which retarded its motion. It lost on the voyage home lm 49' = 16 geo- graphical miles. One might have supposed that Harrison had now secured the Erize; but there were powerful competitors who hoped to gain it y lunars, and a bill was passed through the House in 1763 which left an open chance for a lunarian during four years. A second West Indies trial of the watch took place between November 1763 and March 1764, in a voyage to Barbados, which occupied four months; during which time it is said, in the preamble to act 5 Geo. III. 1765, not to have erred 10 geographical miles in longitude. We only find in the public records the equal altitudes taken at Portsmouth and at Bridgetown, Barbados. William Harrison assumed an average rate of i' a-day gaining, and he anticipated that it would go slower hy I' for every 10° increase in temperature. The longitude of Bridgetown was determined by N. Maskelyne and C. Green by nine emersions of Jupiter's first satellite, against five of Bradley's and NAVIGATION two at Greenwich Observatory, to be 3h 54m 20" west of Greenwich. In February 1765 the commissioners of longitude expressed an opinion that the trial was satisfactory, but required the principles to be disclosed and other watches made. Half the great reward was paid to Harrison under act of parliament in this year, and he and his son gave full descriptions and drawings, upon oath, to seven persons appointed by the commissioners of longitude.1 The other half of the great reward was promised to Harrison when he had made other timekeepers to the satisfaction ot the commissioners, and provided he gave up everything to them within six months. The second half was not paid till 1773, after trials had been made with five watches. These trials were partly made at Greenwich by Maskelyne, who, as we shall see, was a great advocate of lunars, and was not ready to admit more than a subsidiary value to the watch. A bitter contro- versy arose, and Harrison in 1767 published a book in which he charges Maskelyne with exposing his watch to unfair treatment. The feud between the astronomer-royal and the watchmakers con- tinued long after this date. Even after Harrison had received his £20,000, doubts were felt as to the certainty of his achievement, and fresh rewards weie offered in 1774 both for timekeepers and for improved lunar tables or other methods. But the tests proposed for timekeepers were very discouraging, and the watchmakers complained that this was due to Maskelyne. A fierce attack on the astronomer's treatment of himself and other watchmakers was made by Thomas Mudge in 1792, in A Narrative of Facts, addressed to the first lord of the Admiralty, and Maskelyne's reply does not convey the conviction that full justice was done to timekeepers. Maskelyne at this date still says that he would prefer an occultation of a bright star by the moon and a number of correspondent observations of transits of the moon compared with those of fixed stars, made by two astronomers at remote places, to any timekeeper. The details of these controversies, and of subsequent improvements in timekeepers, need not detain us here. In England the names of John Arnold and Thomas Earnshaw as watchmakers are prominent, each of whom received, up to 1805, £3000 reward from the commissioners of longitude. It was Arnold who introduced the name chronometer. The French emulated the English efforts for the production of good timekeepers, and favour- able trials were made between 1768 and 1772 with watches by Le Roy and F. Berthoud. The marvellous accuracy with which the modern chronometer is constructed is doubtless greatly stimulated by the annual competition at Greenwich, from which the Admiralty purchase for the British navy. These chronometers are all fitted with secondary compensation balances, and it is therefore unusual in the navy to apply any temperature correction to the rate. The perfection obtainable in compensation may be illustrated by the performance of a chronometer at the Royal Observatory in 1886, which at a mean temperature of 50° F. had a weekly rate of 1-6 sees, losing; and on being further tested at a mean temperature of 92° F., it only changed its weekly rate to 2-9 sees, losing. In the mercantile marine cheaper chronometers without secondary compensation are more commonly used, and tempera- ture corrections applied, calculated from a formula originally proposed by Hartnup, formerly of the Liverpool Observatory. Great success attends this mode of procedure, as illustrated by the following facts. From the discussion of the records of per- formance of the chronometers of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company during twenty-six voyages from London to Valparaiso and back, by giving equal weight to each of the three chrono- meters carried by each ship, the mean error of longitude for an average voyage of 101 days was less than three minutes of arc. As a single instance, in the s.s. Orellana, on applying temperature rates during a voyage of 63 days, the mean accumulated error of the three chronometers was only 2-3 sec. of time. While chronometers were thus rapidly approaching their present perfection the steady progress of astronomy both by the multiplication and increased accuracy of observations, and by corresponding advances in the theory, had made it possible to construct greatly improved tables. In observations of the moon Greenwich still took the lead; and it was here that Halley's successor Bradley made his two grand discoveries of aberration and nutation which have added so much to the precision of modern astronomy. Kepler's Rudolphine tables of 1627 and Street's tables of 1661, which had held their ground for almost 'The explanations and drawings are at the British Museum; and two of his watches, one of which was used by Captain Cook in the " Resolution," are at Greenwich Observatory. In 1767 Harrison estimates that a watch could be made for £100, and ultimately for £70 or £80. a century, were rendered obsolete by the observations of Halley and his successor. At length, in 1753, in the second volume of the Commentarii of the Academy of Gottingen, Tobias Mayer printed his new solar and lunar tables, which were to have so great an influence on the history of navigation. Mayer after- wards constructed and submitted to the English government in 1755 improved MS. tables. Bradley found that the moon's place by these tables was generally correct within i', so that the error in a longitude found by lunar would not be much more than half a degree if the necessary observations could be taken accurately at sea. Thus the lunar problem seemed to have at length become a practical one for mariners, and in England it was taken up with great energy by Nevil Maskelyne — " the father," as he has been called, " of lunar observations." In 1761 Maskelyne was sent to St Helena to observe the transit of Venus. On his voyage out and home he used Mayer's printed tables for lunar determinations of the longitude, and from St Helena he wrote a letter to the Royal Society (Phil. Trans., 1762), in which he described his observations made with Hadley's quadrant of 20 in. radius, constructed by John Bird, and the glasses ground by Dollond. He took the observations both ways to avoid errors. The arc and index were of brass, the frame mahogany; the vernier was subdivided to minutes. The telescope was 6 in. long, magnified four times, and inverted. Very few seamen in that day possessed so good an instrument. He considered that ship's time should be ascertained within twelve hours before or after observing the lunar distance, as a good common watch will scarcely vary above a minute in that time. This shows that he must have intended the altitudes to be calculated — which would lead to new errors. He considered that his observations would give the longitude within 1 1 degrees. On the nth of February he took ten observations; the extremes were a little over one degree apart. On his return to England Maskelyne prepared the British Mariner's Guide (1763), in which he undertakes to furnish complete and easy instructions for finding the longitude at sea or on shore,within a degree, by observing the distance between the moon and sun, or a star, by Hadley's quadrant. How far that promise was fulfilled, and the practicability of the instructions, are points worth consideration, as the book took a prominent place for some years. The errors which he said were inseparable from the dead-reckoning " even in the hands of the ablest and most skilful navigators," amounting at times to 15 degrees, appear to be overestimated. On the other hand, the equations to determine the moon's position at time of observation from Mayer's tables, would, he believed, always determine the longi- tude within a degree, and generally to half a degree, if applied to careful observations. He recommends the two altitudes and distance being taken simultaneously when practicable. The probable error of observation in a meridian altitude he estimated at one or two minutes, and in a lunar distance at two minutes. He then gave clear rules for finding the moon's position and distance by ten equations, too laborious for seamen to undertake. Admitting the requisite calculations for finding the moon's place to be difficult, he desired to see the moon's longitude and latitude computed for every twelve hours, and hence her distance from the sun and from a proper star on each side of her carefully calculated for every six hours, and published beforehand. In 1765 Maskelyne became astronomer-royal, and was able to give effect to his own suggestion by organizing the publication of the Nautical Almanac. The same act of 1765 which gave Harrison his first £10,000 gave the commissioners authority and funds for this undertaking. Mayer's tables, with his MS. improvements up to his death in 1762, were bought from his widow for £3000; £300 was granted to the mathematician L. Euler, on whose theory of the moon Mayer's later tables were formed; and the first Nautical Almanac, that for 1767, was published in the previous year, at the cost and under the authority of the commissioners of longitude. In 1696 the French nautical almanac for the following year appeared, an improvement on what had been before issued by private persons, but it did not NAVIGATION 293 attempt to give lunar distances.1 In the English Nautical Almanac for 1767 we find everything necessary to render it worthy of confidence, and to satisfy every requirement at sea. The great achievement was that of giving the distance from the moon's centre to the sun, when suitable, and to about seven fixed stars, every three hours. The mariner has only to find the apparent time at ship, and dear his own measured lunar distance from the effects of parallax and refraction (for which at the end of the book are given the methods of Lyons and Dunthorne), and then by simple proportions, or proportional logarithms, find the time at Greenwich. The calculations respecting the sun and moon were made from Mayer's last manuscript tables under the inspection of Maskelyne, and were so continued till 1804.* The calculations respecting the planets are from Halley's tables, and those of Jupiter's satellites from tables made by Wargentin and published by Lalande in 1759 (except those for the fourth satellite). The original Nautical Almanac contained all the principal points of information which the seaman required, but the great value of such an authentic publication to the whole astronomical world led soon to a considerable increase to its contents. As much of this was unnecessary for the ordinary requirements of navigation, since 1903 it has been issued in two forms, the larger for observatory purposes, the smaller for the class for whom it was originally intended. Various useful rules and tables were appended to early volumes of the Almanac. Thus that for 1771 contains a method and table for determining the latitude by two altitudes and the elapsed time (first published by Cornelius Downes of Amsterdam in 1740). At the end of the Almanac for 1772 Maskelyne and Whichell gave three special tables for clearing the lunar distance; still their rule is neither short nor easily remembered. An improvement of Dun- thorne's solution is also given. In the edition for 1773 a new table for equations of equal altitude was given by W. Wales. In those for 1797 and 1800 tables were added by John Brinkley for rendering the calculations for double altitudes easier. The plan of the Nautical Almanac was soon imitated by other nations. In France the Acaddmie Royale de Marine had all the lunar distances translated from the British Nautical Almanac for 1773 and following years, retaining Greenwich time for the three-hourly distances. The tables were considered excellent, and national pride was satisfied by their having been formed on the plan proposed by Lacaille. They did not imitate the mode given for clearing the lunar distance, considering their own better. Though the Spaniards were leaders in the art of navigation during the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, it was not till November 4, 1791, that their first nautical almanac was printed at Madrid, having been previously calculated at Cadiz for the year 1792. They acknowledge borrowing from the English and French. The excellent Berlin Astronomisches Jahrbuch began to appear in 1776, the American Ephemeris in 1849. These two ephemerides and the French Con- naissance des temps are independent and valuable works. A book of Tables Requisite to be Used with the Nautical Ephemeris was published by Maskelyne at the same time as the first Almanac, and ten thousand copies were quickly sold. A second edition, pre- pared by Wales, appeared in 1781, an octavo of 237 pages, in the preface of which it is stated that it contains everything necessary for computing the latitude and longitude by observation. There are in all twenty-three tables, the traverse table and table of meridional parts alone being deficient as compared with modern works of the kind ; dead-reckoning Maskelyne did not touch. He gave practical methods for working several problems; that for computing the lunar 1 The French nautical almanac or Connaissance des temps ap- peared under letters patent from the king, dated 24th March 1679 — seventeen years before the first issue. The following is a literal trans- lation of its advertisement: " This little book is a collection of holy days and festivals in each month. The rising and setting of the moon when it is visible, and of the sun every day. The aspects of the planets as with respect to each other, the moon and the fixed stars. The lunations and eclipses. The difference of longitude between the meridian of Paris and the principal towns in France. The time of the sun's entrance into the twelve signs of the zodiac. The true place of the planets every fifth day, and of the moon every day of the year, in longitude and latitude. The moon's meridian passage, for finding the time of high water, ' as well as for the use of dials by moonlight.' A table of refraction. The equation of time [this table is strangely arranged, as though the clock were to be reset on the first of every month, and the explanation speaks of the ' premier mobile ']. The time of twilight at Paris. The sun's right ascension to hours and minutes. The sun's declination at noon each day to seconds. The whole accompanied by necessary instructions." Mayer's tables were printed at London under Maskelyne's superintendence in 1770. especially is an improvement on those by Lyons and Dunthorne, and a rule given for clearing the distance, called Dunthorne's improved method, is remarkably short. Maskelyne's rule for finding the latitudes by two altitudes and the elapsed time is also good. The third edition of the Tables was issued in 1802. The publication of the Requisite Tables met a great want, and the existence of such accurate and conveniently-arranged mathematical tables for the special purposes of nautical calculations led to the more ¥;neral use of many refinements which had been previously neglected, hey formed the original of many subsequent and greatly extended collections, of which those by J. W. Norie are the more generally used in modern times in the mercantile marine, and the very accurate and comprehensive tables by James Inman (originally published in 1823) are constantly used in the British navy. Until the middle of the I7th century mariners generally employed small collections of Dutch charts, known as " waggoners ' from Waghenair, the name of a celebrated Dutch hydrographer in 1584. In 1671 appeared the English Pilot by John Sellers, who is styled the " Hydrographer Royal." It forms a collection of rude sketches of the coasts of England, the North Sea, France and Spain, with sailing directions, and on its appearance the importation of Dutch charts was prohibited. Private enterprise, for many years after that, supplied both the British navy and the British mercantile marine with constantly improving charts, especially latterly, under the powerful patronage of the East India Company, whose hydrographer (Alexander Dalrymple), in 1795, was selected as the first hydro- grapher of the Admiralty. This post has since been occupied by a succession of distinguished naval officers under whom have grown up a large school of able nautical surveyors, the results of whose labours are now published in the well-known Admiralty charts. Prior to the issue of charts by the Admiralty, the instructions to masters of vessels in the British navy enjoined them to " provide such charts and instruments as they considered necessary for the safe navigation of the ship," while on the completion of a voyage of discovery it was customary for the results to be published for the Admiralty by private firms. The establishment of the Admiralty Hydrographic Office in 1 795 marked a great step in the advancement of the art of naviga- tion. On the 1 2th of August of that year an order in council placed all such nautical documents as were^hen in the possession of the Admiralty in charge of Dalrymple, whose catalogue, compiled for the use of the East India Company in 1786, contained 347 charts between England, the Cape, India and China; thus the germ of the present hydrographic department was estab- lished. The expense was then limited to £650 a year. The first official catalogue of Admiralty charts was issued in 1830, the total number being then 962. After the close of the long devastating war in 1815 both trade and science revived, and several governments besides that of Great Britain saw the necessity of surveying the coasts in various parts of the globe; the greater portion of the work fell to the English hydrographical department, which took under its charge nearly every place where the inhabitants were not able to do it for themselves. Since that time its career of usefulness has steadily developed, and it not merely undertakes the constant improvement of the charts of the whole world, but periodically issues for the use of the seafaring community a vast amount of most accurate and practical nautical information on the various closely allied subjects of navigation, tides, compass adjustment and ocean meteorology. A knowledge of the times and heights of high and low water and the directions of the tidal streams due to those phenomena are in many parts of the world (and especially round our own coasts) of vital importance to navigation. The theory of the tides was first laid down by Newton and Laplace, and in Phil. Trans., 1683, there is an account of Flamsteed's tide table for London Bridge, which gave the times of each high tide on every day in the year. For a long subsequent period empirical tide tables for a few places in England were published by private individuals, but in 1832 the researches of Dr W. Whewell and Sir J. W. Lubbock enabled official tide tables to be issued by the Admiralty. These have steadily advanced in detail and accuracy, being now in many cases based on continuous tidal observations for a whole lunar period of i8i years, and represent the practical epitome of our knowledge of the tides and tidal currents of the whole world. The formulae and tables on which these predictions are based are given in the introduction to each annual volume (see TIDE). MODERN NAVIGATION Having thus sketched the progress of the art of navigation from an early period to the present time, we will now describe the modern methods by which it is brought into practical use, 294 NAVIGATION referring our readers for more technical information to ^he professional text-books enumerated at the end of this article. The great development in both size and speed of modern ships enormously increases the responsibilities of those who command and navigate them, and has led to a careful examination of the existing modes of determining a ship's position at all times by day or night, both when in sight of land and on the open ocean. An examination of the present text-books on the subject of navigation shows how problems and methods which were formerly considered chiefly as theoretical exercises have now, from the altered conditions of the navigation of very fast ships, become methods of frequent practice, while corresponding improvements have been made in the instruments, such as compasses, charts and chronometers, by the aid of which more satisfactory results are now attained. Much has also been done to advance the study of this and its numerous allied subjects by the development of the Royal Naval College at Greenwich and the United Seivice Institution; also by the establishment of shipmasters' societies (of which the well-known society in London is typical), where during the year valuable papers are read and useful discussions take place among those actually carrying out the practice of navigation. In planning out in advance a long ocean voyage the experienced navigator would first, by laying down the track from port to port on a great circle chart, ascertain the shortest route between them, remembering that the greatest saving in distance over other routes is when the ports are far apart in longitude and both in high latitudes of the same name. On examining such a track in conjunction with the wind and current charts it will be seen what modifications the intervention of land, unfavourable currents or winds, ice or unduly high latitude render necessary, and such modified route would be finally adopted subject to possible change as the voyage progressed. The judgment formed on the best route to follow would also be largely influenced by the remarks in the volumes of Sailing directions or " Pilots " relating to the region about to be traversed,while among the many excellent modern publications of the Hydrographic Office of the Admiralty perhaps the Ocean Passage Book is one of the most generally useful, since, when used in combination with the admirable charts of suggested full-powered and auxiliary tracks, it very greatly assists all navigators in planning out a successful voyage. Finally the intended route would be trans- ferred from the great circle chart to one on Mercator's projection, which is the more convenient for purposes of navigation since in constructing the former for the sake of simplicity a projection of the coast's surface is adopted on which great circles are correctly shown as straight lines (gnomonic), while for practical purposes in navigation such a representation on which a ship's track when steering a continuous course (technically termed a rhumb line) is truly shown as a straight line (Mercator) is the most convenient, although in high latitudes giving a very distorted representation of the surface depicted. It is well to remember that on great circle charts rhumb lines become curves and great circles straight lines, and, vice versa, on Mercator charts, the rhumb line on each projection being that nearer to the equator, all meridians and the equator on both projections are shown as straight lines. Ships rarely steer on great circles, which would generally theoretically involve continually altering course, but a series of chords of such circles are described of lengths such as involve a practical change of course of one or two degrees on the com- pletion of each. Great circle charts are very useful for drawing what is known as a composite track where if the great circle route would lead into too high a latitude the shortest route to and from the highest desirable parallel is readily laid down, the intervening track being pursued on that parallel. A method of drawing approximate great circles directly on Mercator charts was proposed by Airy in 1858, and is some- times very useful. The excellent idea, originally suggested by M. F. Maury, of establishing steam " lanes " in localities where there is much ocean traffic, so as to minimize the risks of collision between outward and homeward bound ships, has been successfully carried out in the North Atlantic. The leading transatlantic steamship companies now agree to follow great circle routes from the Irish coast to points on the Banks of Newfoundland, which vary somewhat in position with the season of the year, but are published in advance. These " lanes " being avoided by sailing vessels, risks of collision are materially lessened. Having thus planned the most desirable general track to pursue, three methods are employed to ascertain the position of the ship at any time during such voyage: these are (i) pro- jecting the track on charts; (2) simple trigonometrical calcula- tions where the data are the course steered and distance run; and (3) astronomical observations, which form an entirely independent method. Of these the first is the least trustworthy, owing to the usual difficulties attending accurate graphic methods and the small scales on which ocean charts are necessarily drawn. When near the land the larger scale coast charts are used, and in the approaches to harbours still larger scale plans give increasing accuracy to this record of a ship's position. Index charts of all parts of the world are provided, by referring to which the navigator ascertains which chart or plan to employ, always preferably using that on the largest scale. On leaving harbour, and while near the coast, the position is not found by calculation but by frequently observing (when a variety of objects is in sight) (i) simultaneous sextant angles between suitably situated objects subsequently laid down on the chart by a station pointer; (2) simultaneous compass bearings of two or more objects (technically known as cross bearings) ; or (3) a combination of both methods by employing one bearing and one angle. All such methods are capable of considerable accuracy if the observations are made simultane- ously. Should only a small number of objects, or sometimes only one, be visible (as frequently occurs at night) other and rougher methods are practised, depending upon the change of bearing of an object while a certain distance in a certain direction is traversed by the ship, such knowledge being based in many cases on an estimate of the action of the tide. When a ship is steaming at the rate of 20 knots the navigator remembers that a mile is passed over in three minutes, and that if in sight of land and fixing positions by objects on shore, it is essential to adopt some rapid method; otherwise when laid down on the chart the position shows where the ship was, and not where she is. This difficulty has led to the more general use of methods of obtaining positions by angles instead of bearings, and laying them down on the chart by the aid of the station pointer. Many advantages accrue from this, as the observer is not restricted in position on board, as is the case when using the compass, and especially if a double sextant (having two index glasses and one horizon glass) is employed two angles can be measured simultaneously, the result on the chart being very rapidly arrived at. An ingenious combination of sextant and station pointer in one has been proposed, and most simply carried out by attaching vertical sights to the legs of a station pointer, which is put on a suitable horizontal stand, and the legs moved until the sights are in line with the objects observed. To assist the navigator in the choice of suitable objects between which to measure the angles, a very useful pamphlet is issued by the Admiralty, from the diagrams in which' it can be seen at a glance which combination of objects in sight gives the most favourable result, always remembering as a broad principle that nearer objects are more suitable than distant ones, and that the accuracy of position determined depends on the relative distances of the objects as well as on the magnitude of the angles between them. In these circumstances, which render these rougher methods those only available, and especially in hazy weather in many known localities (such as the English Channel), a continuous line of deep sea soundings at fairly even distances apart affords an additional verification of position, remembering that only an occasional sounding might prove very misleading. The chronicle of progress in the art of navigation would be ve NAVIGATION 295 incomplete without reference to the extended use of Lord Kelvin's sounding machines, either in the original form, where the increased pressure at different depths is recorded by dis- coloration of chemical tubes, or in the later form known as the " depth recorder," where similar results are obtained by the automatic record of the position of a piston forced upwards in a tube by this increased pressure. Very satisfactory results can be obtained at speeds of 15 or 16 knots, enabling that great safeguard of navigation in many places, viz. a continuous line of soundings, to be accurately and rapidly obtained. In con- nexion with this should be mentioned a most ingenious invention known as the " submarine sentry," which on being set for any desired depth and towed overboard remains at that depth what- ever the speed of the ship may be. On striking bottom it at once floats to the surface and rings a warning bell. Such an instru- ment is of obvious value in ships where, owing to the small number of available men, it is difficult to maintain a continuous line of soundings. To avoid an unnecessarily wide detour in rounding points and shoals, extensive use is now made of both horizontal and vertical danger angles ; the former is the angle on the arc of a horizontal circle passing through a point at the required distance from the danger, and through two previously selected, easily recognized, fixed objects. Should circumstances enable the selection to be made of an angle of about 90°, the ship by continually measuring the angle may be steered on the arc of such a circle with great precision, and may even be safely taken through a channel between two dangers. The vertical danger angle enables similar results to be attained by measuring the vertical angle subtended by a known height; but except where the selected object is one whose height is well determined, such as a lighthouse, this method is not so trustworthy as the former. Before losing sight of land the latitude and longitude of the last well-determined position found by the methods referred to is taken from the coast chart, transferred to the ocean or small scale chart, and considered to be the " departure " or starting-point of the ocean voyage, and from that point the course and distance run by the ship is laid down, being rectified on every occasion when the position is more accurately determined by astronomical means. To obviate the inevitable inaccuracies attending this graphic method and as a corroboration of the ship's position, the changes of latitude and longitude involved in each alteration of course are daily calculated by plane trigonometry, such calculations being materially abbreviated by the use of the Traverse Table, which is a tabulated expression of the solutions of right-angled plane triangles. The foregoing modes of keeping account of a ship's position are technically known as " dead reckoning." The general introduc- tion of compasses with short needles and slow periods of vibration has done very much towards improving the accuracy with which a ship's " dead reckoning " is kept. The original model of these was that patented by Lord Kelvin in 1876, and since adopted in the British navy as the standard. In this instrument we have a compass specially designed to enable the principles of com- pensation or correction proposed by Sir G. B. Airy in 1837 to be accurately carried out, while its slow period of swing renders. it in all circumstances extremely steady. The record of distance run is always obtained from the patent log, usually in the form of the Cherub or Taffrail log introduced in 1878. The common or hand log has ceased to be regarded as anything but the very roughest of guides, and the patent log in its original form, in which it recorded the revolutions of a small screw towed by the ship, does not give satisfactory results at great speeds, nor can anything more favourable be said of those forms where pressure on known areas is employed. The revolu- tions of the engines, with due allowance made for the condition of the ship's bottom, afford now perhaps the best means of estimating speed (see LOG). Astronomical observations afford the most accurate means of ascertaining positions at sea, other methods (dead reckoning) being only relied upon when the weather does not admit of the practice of these, though by utilizing twilight and night observa- tions of moon, stars and planets, the navigator in most parts of the world need seldom proceed far without the means of astronomically rectifying his position either in latitude, longitude or both at the same time. The practical problems involved are precisely those employed at astronomical observatories, but it is not possible to attain similar accuracy of results, for though the sextant (the instru- ment always employed at sea in making such observations) is capable of marvellous accuracy, yet, as practically all such observations depend directly upon altitudes measured above the sea horizon, the uncertainty and variability of the true position of this, due to the changing effects of refraction, much affect observations made at any one time. This error in practice is greatly reduced by methods of combining several observations made at different times and using their mean or average result. A notable feature of the progress of the art of modern navigation is the greatly increased practice of star navigation, and many of the supposed difficulties of night observations are found to be removed by experience. Determinations of positions at sea by twilight observations, when the brighter stars become visible while the horizon is still well defined, are probably the most accurate means we possess; and the careful navigator, by combining for latitude stars passing north and south of the zenith, and for longitude those near the prime vertical both east and west, can generally depend upon a good result, especially if suitable stars can be found for each pair at about the same altitudes. For these purposes the armillary sphere is extremely useful: this is a small celestial globe on which are depicted the principal stars visible to the naked eye. On elevating the pole to the approximate latitude of the observer, and turning the sphere until the sidereal time is under the fixed meridian, a correct representation of the heavens at the time of observation is obtained; the stars are then easily identified by their bearings and altitudes. This valuable instrument is not merely useful when at twilight, only a few of the brighter stars being visible, the constellations to which they belong are difficult of recognition, but it enables arrangement to be made in advance for such observations as are desired to be taken during the night. By marking in pencil on the globe the positions of the planets in right ascension and declination, the same sphere is also available for their identification. The heavenly bodies commonly observed at sea are: The Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Pole star, and the larger (or first magnitude) fixed stars, the positions of all of which in the heavens are given in the Nautical Almanac for fixed epochs at Greenwich, with the requisite data for computing their positions at all other times in all other places. The chief astronomical observations made at sea are those for ascertaining (i) latitude, (2) time and thence longitude, (3) error of compass, and (4) latitude and longitude simultaneously. To ascertain latitude by itself altitudes of heavenly bodies are measured above the horizon when they are on or near the meridian and therefore exactly or nearly north or south of the observer; in the case of the sun, of course, this means at or near noon, and in the case of other bodies such local times are previously accurately ascertained by a simple calculation made from the Nautical Almanac or more roughly found from an armillary sphere. The principle involved is the simple one that by subtracting the observed altitude when on the meridian from 90° the distance of the zenith or point overhead north or south of the heavenly body is found; then by combining with this the distance, obtained from the Nautical Almanac, of the body considered north or south of the celestial equator at the same instant, it is found how far the zenith is north or south of the celestial equator, and this is exactly the same as the latitude of the observer since the celestial equator is merely the imaginary extension of that of the earth. Such observations are not necessarily restricted to that which can be taken at the instant when the body observed is on the meridian (meridian altitude); equally accurate and multiplied observations can be made on either or both sides of the meridian if the body is somewhat near it (ex-meridian and circum-meridian altitudes), and a simple calculation or reference to a specially constructed table or graphic curve gives the required result. Errors arising from uncertainty as to the true position of the horizon are with twilight and night observations largely counter- acted by taking the means of results obtained from observations made of heavenly bodies crossing the meridian both north and south of the observer, taken as nearly at the same time as convenient. In northern latitudes the pole star is so near to the pole that 296 NAVIGATION observations of it can be taken at any time when it is visible, and from a convenient table given in the Nautical Almanac the altitude of the pole itself (which equals the latitude) is readily obtained. Longitude at sea is in modern navigation always found by com- paring local or ship mean time with Greenwich mean time, the latter being accurately known from the chronometers and the former from astronomical observations of suitably placed heavenly bodies. It may be assumed in all well found modern ships that on applying the known errors and accumulated rates to the times shown by the chronometers the Greenwich time at any instant is practically accurately known, and as the distance east or west of any place is merely the difference between the two local times at any instant ex- pressed in degrees, so also is the distance east or west of Greenwich (longitude) the difference between time at place and Greenwich time at any one instant. The connexion between time and degrees depends upon the complete rotation of the earth in twenty-four hours, causing meridians 15° apart to pass under the same fixed point in the heavens at intervals of one hour, those east of Greenwich passing earlier and those west later, resulting in local time being in advance of Greenwich time in east longitude and vice versa in west longitude. The errors and rates of gaining or losing of the chronometer re- ferred to are known from observations made on shore prior to the beginning of the voyage with a sextant and artificial horizon, and these observations are capable of almost as great accuracy as those taken at fixed astronomical observatories. As this knowledge is absolutely essential every opportunity is taken at each principal port visited of either repeating such observations or obtaining the infor- mation from time balls dropped from observatories on shore at the Greenwich times indicated in the Time-ball pamphlet. Local or ship time can only be found with fair accuracy from calculations based on altitudes of heavenly bodies, when they are nearly east or west of the observer or technically on the prime vertical. Such times can be approximately seen from the azimuth diagrams or from tables of true bearings of heavenly bodies, and the error involved by uncertainty as to the position of the horizon can be greatly obviated in twilight or at night by taking the mean of results arising from nearly simultane- ous observations of bodies bearing both east and west. In the usual case of determining time by observations of the sun the results arising from morning observations are compared with those similarly ob- tained in the afternoon. It will of course be remarked that should any unallowed-for error in the chronometer exist it will affect the resulting longitude by its full amount. In considering the foregoing methods of astronomically fixing a ship's position we notice that always when the two elements of latitude and longitude are determined at different times, and gener- ally, as we shall presently see, when they are determined together (though usually for a shorter time) the navigator has to depend for some time on the accuracy of the course steered and estimated distance run; also when cloudy weather prevails he has to depend entirely on those elements for a knowledge of the ship's position. The frequent astronomical observation of the error of the compass is therefore a most important and fortunately simple duty. In practice the error is found by a comparison between the compass bearing of a heavenly body and its true bearing, obtained either by calculation, or more generally from a graphic diagram (Weir's azimuth diagram) or tables from which at practically any time when above the horizon the true bearings of the principal heavenly bodies are taken by in- spection. These important observations are most accurately made when the body observed is bearing nearly east or west true, if not too high, but if clouds prevent observations at such times, fairly good results can be obtained by observing the compass bearing when the object is on the meridian (if not too high) and therefore lying north or south true. The causes of the changing errors of a compass in an iron ship are described elsewhere (see COMPASS), but by making comparisons as above the navigator can at once ascertain what is termed the " total " error, and if he takes from that the portion of error due to the earth, or what is termed variation (known from a chart of such elements), the remaining error is that caused by the iron of the ship, technically known as deviation. The latter method of procedure has the great advantage of enabling the navigator to ascertain during a voyage whatever magnetic changes in the ship are taking place other than those he would expect to occur on change of position. The total error is that applied to compass courses. Deviations greater than a few degrees are not merely inconvenient but in modern compasses produce unsteadiness or oscillation of the compass card, so that, especially in new ships, the skilful navigator reduces such errors by adjusting the compensating magnets when favourable occasions offer. Recognizing the great value of a sound knowledge of compass adjustment, the British Board of Trade have included this among the compulsory subjects of examination for the rank of^ master, thus following the example of the navy, where all navigating officers have to attend a practical course of study on the subject. The practical problem of finding both latitude and longitude at the same time is the most important of all in modern navigation, and is rapidly_ superseding other modes of ascertaining a ship's position. The p^nciple involved depends upon the fact that every heavenly body is at each particular instant of time directly overhead or in the zenith of some place on the earth. Thus, if we take the sun as an instance, it is noon at all places on the meridian of 60° W. when it is exactly 4 p.m. at Greenwich, and at the one spot on that meridian where the observer is as far north or south of the terrestrial equator as the sun is north or south of the celestial equator (declination) it will not only be noon but the sun will be immediately overhead and will have an altitude of 90°. This, therefore, at any instant defines the position where the sun is vertical; its latitude must equal the sun's declination and its longitude in time equal the time since noon at Greenwich. Now at a distance of 60 m. in every direction on the surface of the earth from the point thus defined the sun will have an altitude of 89° and in all directions at a distance of 1200 m. its altitude will be 70° ( = 90°— 20°), so that on a globe, by marking the position where at a certain instant the sun is vertical and taking that as a centre, a series of concentric circles may be drawn, on all points of each of which the sun's altitude will be the same. When, therefore, at sea we measure with a sextant at any time the altitude of the sun (say 60° 10') we at once know we are somewhere on the arc of a circle having for its centre the spot where the sun is vertical at that instant, and for radius a distance equal to 1790' ( = 90° — 60' 10'). Such information, combined with the best and most recent knowledge we have of the ship's latitude at the time, will of itself afford valuable information as to the position, but by making two such observations, separated by a sufficiently long interval for the position having the sun vertical to have moved considerably (owing to the rotation of the earth), we are able to consider with certainty that we must be at one or other of the widely separated intersections of two such circles, the movement of the ship in the interval between the two observations being duly allowed for. The dead reckoning affords information as to which of these intersections is the true position. Now even on a large globe it would be practically impossible to obtain very accurate results from this problem by drawing such circles, but on a large scale chart (or ordinary squared paper) much greater accuracy is obtainable. The method commonly used on a M creator chart involves two suppositions: (i) that the concentric circles we have referred to will be correctly represented as circles on the chart, and (2) that these are of such diameters, that a portion of say 100 m. of arc may be considered to be a straight line coincident with the tangent to the circle and therefore at right angles to the direction of the sun. Except in high latitudes (above 60°) Mercator's projection fulfils the first condition sufficiently well for practical purposes, and, except when the altitude is greater than 70°, the second condition is also approximately true since the radii of such circles will exceed 1200 m. Premising these conditions, suppose that on a certain day at 9 a.m. when the ship's approximate position, known from previous observa- tions and laid down on the chart, is supposed to be at A (fig. 7), an observation of the sun is made from which the longitude is calculated, the result being that on the sup- position that the latitude of A is correct, the ship's position is probably at B. Now by drawing a straight line ab through B at right angles to the true bearing of the sun at the time of observation (which is most readily known from the azimuth tables) we are obviously right in assum- FIG. 7. ing the ship's position tc be somewhere on that line if we consider it as approximately an arc of a large circle having the place where the sun is then vertical as a centre, the direction of such place being indicated by an arrow. If our supposed latitude be right the position will be at B, but if not correct it must still be on the line 06, and if near land or any danger the direction of this line, even if no subsequent observation be available, will often give most valuable information. If, while waiting for the sun to change its bearing, the ship runs from B to C, a line cd drawn through C parallel to ab will represent an arc on which the position lies when she is probably at C, which at tnis instant (10-30 a. m.) is the most probable position of the ship. If another observation of the sun for longitude is now made and the resulting position is D (lying of course in the same latitude as C), on drawing through D a line ef at right angles to the bearing of the sun (indicated by an arrow) we are right in assuming the position to be somewhere on such an arc as is represented by this line. Hence E, the intersection of the two arcs on which the position lies at the same instant, must be the true place when the last observation was taken at the supposed position D, the discrepancies being entirely due to the original unknown error in the assumed latitude of A, for had that been accurate the position on the original line ab would have been such that on laying off the course and distance from that position C would have coincided with E. Errors in the assumed latitude of as much in many cases as 30 m. will often be found to produce no practical difference in the resultant position, but of course the accuracy of the longitude found is entirely dependent upon the chronometer, and in such cases as arise when the intersecting arcs make a small angle with each other great accuracy NAVIGATION 297 is required in the course and distance run between the times of observation. This method of finding both latitude and longitude at the same time is commonly known as " Sumner's " method from the publicity given to it in 1847 by the publication of an excellent pamphlet on the subject by a master of that name in the American mercantile marine, although in a modified form it was practised at a much earlier date in the British navy under the name of " cross bearings of the sun." Prior to the publication of azimuth tables in 1866 the calculation was more lengthy and troublesome, the work being practically doubled. We have taken an illustration from observations of the sun, but the method is obviously applicable to all heavenly bodies provided they are so situated that the arcs drawn will intersect at a good angle; this in twilight or at night-time is readily done by selecting two heavenly bodies whose bearings differ considerably, and in such cases the small complication of allowing for the run of the ship is often obviated by making the observations simultaneously. The armillary sphere or star globe is useful in selecting objects suitably situated. The principle of Sumner's method has of recent years received a very important and valuable development under the name of the " new navigation." In this method, originally proposed by Marc St Hilaire, a comparison is made between the altitude of a heavenly body as actually observed and that calculated from the supposed position of the ship. For instance, the position of an observer at the instant of observing a (true) altitude of the sun of 40° 10' must be somewhere on a portion of the circumference of a circle (usually of such size that the portion considered may be represented on a chart by a straight line) having its centre in latitude equal to the sun's declination, and in longitude equal to the Greenwich apparent time at the instant, the radius of such a circle being equal to the sun's zenith distance of 49° 50'. If at the same time the true altitude of the sun is from the estimated position of the ship calculated to be 40° 5', it is evident that the greater observed altitude must be owing to the ship being nearer to the centre of the circle than was supposed, and a line of position drawn through the estimated position at right angles to the bearing of the sun must be transferred parallel to itself through a distance of 5' towards the direction of the sun's bearing. The second line of position, obtained when the sun's bearing has altered some 25°, is dealt with in a similar way, and the intersection of the two lines so obtained gives the position of the ship at the time of second observation. This mode of procedure enables all observa- tions, whether near or far from the meridian, to be similarly dealt with; in all cases the altitude the heavenly body should have is computed and compared with what it actually has. The practice of problems such as the foregoing is greatly facilitated by the extended means of finding at any moment the azimuth or true bearing of a heavenly body. When the azimuth was only required for the de- termination of compass error, the valuable tables from which the computed results could be obtained by inspection were limited to those cases of most practical importance, but from the ingenious and simple graphical form known as Weir's azimuth diagram azimuths of all heavenly bodies, whose declinations extend from 60° N. to 60° S., can be obtained during the whole time they are above the horizon, thus greatly facilitating the laying down lines of position. A careful record of everything pertaining to the navigation of the ship, with the results of all observations and calculated positions, is kept in the ship's log, an official book of great importance, a rough original of which is kept on deck with entries made in it of all such events at the time of their occurrence. A copy of the headings of a page of this as transferred into the official log is here given : The course entered here is that which would be indicated by the " standard " compass of the ship (placed in the most favourable magnetic position on board) ; that actually steered by is the one most conveniently seen by the helmsman. Comparisons between the latter and the " standard " are frequently made, their indications generally varying somewhat owing to the difference of deviation in hfferent positions on the ship. The compass card is usually gradu- ated into points and degrees, but the course is always estimated in degrees. The speed is ascertained from the indication of the patent log, the hand log being generally only used as a rough check on this. Wind direction and force are the result of estimation; as the speed and course of the ship so greatly affect the apparent direction and velocity no practical anemometer for use on board ship exists. Wind force is estimated in terms of what is known as the " Beaufort " scale, based on the supposed amount of sail a vessel could carry at ! time. The height of the mercurial barometer is carefully read at the end of each watch, as also is the thermometer; the more sensitive aneroid barometer is kept in a very accessible position and more requently referred to by the officer of the watch. When navigating m localities and during seasons at which circular storms or hurricanes Course made good. Distance. Latitude. Longitude. Variation Allowed. True Bearings and Distance. Made Good. Through the water. D.R. Obs. D.R. Obs. Current. 8 | P Course. Wind. 1 Weather. Deviation. s Thermometer. Temperature of Sea. Remarks. Direction. Force. may be expected (as known from the Barometer Manual) the baro- meter is anxiously and frequently watched, and at all times its indi- cation is compared with that normally experienced in the locality traversed as shown on the barometer charts, due allowance being made in the tropics for the ordinary daily movement. All observa- tions relating to ocean meteorology are of great service in the com- pilation and improvement of wind and current charts, and in many ships more extensive meteorological journals are voluntarily kept on forms supplied by the Meteorological Office. A knowledge of the temperature of the surface of the sea is often of great practical use in navigation as giving warning of change in direction of the surface ocean current, especially in localities where there exist near to each other warm and cold currents setting in different directions, as, for instance, near the edge of the Gulf Stream. As an indication of the vicinity of ice such observations are usually much less trustworthy. On the completion of the calculations giving the ship's position at noon each day the results are tabulated in the ship's log on the following form : The course and distance made good each day are calculated by trigonometry between the best determined positions at two successive noons, such positions in fine weather being always those determined astronomically, and the current being considered the difference in the positions at noon as determined astronomically and as calculated by dead reckoning since the previous noon; such differences, however, obviously include the errors of all kinds. The latitude and longitude found by dead reckoning are entered under that heading (D.R.). The astronomical positions of latitude and longitude (entered as " obs." or " by observation ") are very seldom both determined at noon, but are carried up or back to that instant by calculation from the intervening dead reckoning. The variation allowed is taken from the published variation chart, on which the latest results of such observations are embodied at intervals of about ten years with the annual changes (as far as known) in different localities, thus enabling the navigator to obtain its value at intermediate dates. Finally the course and distance are calculated from the position of the ship at noon to either the port of destination or some prominent position or danger near to which the vessel must pass. This is entered under the heading " true bearings and distance." AUTHORITIES. — The following list of some writers of navigation whose works have not been already mentioned may be found useful to refer to: Thomas Addison, Arithmetical Navigation (1625) — he was the first to apply logarithms; Antonio de Najera (Lisbon, 1628) follows Nunez and Cespedes, but corrects the declination of sun and stars; Sir R. Dudley, L'arcano del mare (1630-1646, 2nd ed., Florence, 1661) — too ponderous for the use of seamen; Sir Jonas Moore (1681) — one of the best books of the period; William Jones (1702) — a useful compendium containing trigonometry applied to the various sailings, the use of the log, and tables of logarithms; Pierre Jean Bouguer, Traite complet de la navigation (folio, 1698) — good but too large; Manuel Pimental, L'Arte de navegar (Lisbon, 1712); Pierre Bouguer, jun., Nouveau traite de navigation (1753) — without tables, published at the request of the minister of marine, improved and shortened in 1769 under the superintendence of the astronomer Lacaille; Nathaniel Colspn, The Mariner's New Calendar (i73§)-^a good book; Seller, Practical Navigation — a book very popular in its time (there was an edition as late as 1739) ; Samuel Dunn published good star charts and tables of latitude and longitude (1737), and framed concise rules for many problems on navigation (published by the board of longitude) ; John H. Moore, The Practical Navigator and Seaman's New Daily Assistant (1772) — very popular, and gener- ally used in the British navy — the l8th and igth editions (1810,1814) were improved by J. Dessiou; W. Wilson (Edinburgh, 1773) — a treatise of good repute at the time; Samuel Dunn, New Epitome of Practical Navigation, or Guide to the Indian Seas (1777) — for the longitude he depends chiefly on a variation chart from observations by East Indiamen, and he still makes no mention of the Nautical Almanac or of parallel rulers; Samuel Dunn (probably a son of the last named, 1781) is the last writer who gives instructions for the use of the astrolabe; he also wrote on " lunars " (1783, 1793), a name which was generally adopted about this time, and published an excellent traverse table (1785), and Daily Uses of the Nautical Sciences, (1790) ; Horsburgh, Directory for East India Voyages (1805) ; A Mackay, The Complete Navigator (about 1791); 2nd ed. 1810)— there is no instruction for finding longitude by the chronometer. Kelly, Spherical Trigonometry and Nautical Astronomy (1796, 4th ed., 1813) — clear and simple; N. Bowditch, Practical Navigator (1800) — passed through many editions and is now (in a revised form) the official text-book of the United States navy; J. W. None, Epitome of Navigation (1803, 2ist ed. 1878) — still a favourite in the mercantile marine from its simplicity, and because navigation can be learned from it without a teacher; T. Kerigan, The Young Navigator's Guide to Nautical Astronomy (1821); Inman, Epitome of Navigation (1821) — with an excellent volume of tables, formerly 298 NAVIGATION LAWS largely used in the British navy, gth ed. (1854); E. Riddle, Naviga- tion and Nautical Astronomy (3rd ed. 1824, gth ed., by Escott, 1871), still worthy of its high reputation ; J. T. Towson, Tables for Reduction of Ex-meridian Altitudes (4th ed. 1854), very useful; H. Raper, Practice of Navigation (1840, loth ed. 1870), an excellent book; H. Evers, Navigation and Great Circle Sailing (1850), other works on the same subject by Merrifield and Evers (1868) and Evers (1875); R. M. Inskip, Navigation and Nautical Astronomy (1865), a useful book, without tables; T. H. Sumner, A Method of finding a Ship's Position by two Observations and, Greenwich Time by Chronometer — this is set forth as a novelty, but was published by Captain R. Owen, R.N., early in the century, and practised by many officers; H. W. Jeans, Navigation and Nautical Astronomy (1858); Harbord, Glossary of Navigation (1863, enlarged ed. 1883), a very excellent book of reference ; W. C. Bergen, Practice and Theory of Navigation (1872); Sir W. Thomson, Navigation, a Lecture (1876), well worth reading; Lecky, Wrinkles in Navigation (1880); Martin, Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, sanctioned for use in the British navy. (W. R. M.*) NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws grouped under this title are a branch rather of municipal law than of the general maritime law. They are based upon the right of a state to regulate the navigation of its own waters and to protect its own commerce. One of the most curious early books on the subject is Captain G. St Lo, England's Safetie or a Bridle to the French King, proposing a sure Method for encouraging Navigation (London, and ed. 1693). Navigation laws may be divided into two classes. The first class includes all laws designed to secure a commercial monopoly to the state which enacted them. In Great Britain the object was attained by the Navigation Acts, the earliest of which were those of 1381 and 1390, ordaining that no merchandise should be shipped out of the realm except in British ships on pain of forfeiture. The principal Navigation Act was that of 1660 (Scottish, 1661, c. 45). Up to 1854 coasting trade was wholly restricted to British ships, and a British ship must have been navigated by a master who was a British subject, and by a crew of whom a certain proportion must have been British subjects. After 1854 the only relics of such restrictions were found in the provisions of the Customs Consolidation Act 1853, § 324, by which, in order to secure reciprocity, prohibitions or restrictions may by order in council be imposed upon the ships of any country in which British ships are liable to similar pro- hibitions or restrictions. Subject to these exceptions, a foreign ship is in the same position as a British ship with regard to British trade. This right of foreign ships is expressly recognized by the Customs Law Consolidation Act 1876; by § 141 of that act foreign ships engaged in the coasting trade are not to be subject to higher rates than British ships. Any advantages which a British ship has, e.g. the right of claiming protection for her flag, the non-attachment to her of a maritime lien for necessaries supplied in a British port, are not directly connected with the policy under which the Navigation Acts have become obsolete. These advantages are not secured to a British ship until she is registered. United States law agrees with British in this respect. " The United States have imitated the policy of England and other commercial nations in conferring peculiar privileges upon American-built ships and owned by our own citizens. . . . The object of the Registry Acts is to encourage our own trade, navigation and shipbuilding by granting peculiar or exclusive privileges of trade to the flag of the United States, and by prohibiting the communication of those immunities to the shipping and mariners of other countries " (Kent, Comm. iii. 139). It may be noticed that an alien is generally incapable of becoming the owner of a ship. This incapacity was specially preserved in the case of British ships by the Naturaliza- tion Act 1870, § 14. The second class of navigation laws includes those which deal with the navigation of any waters over which a state has any control, and embraces all that is necessary for the due use of such waters, as rules of the road, management of harbours and light- houses, and licensing and control of pilots. Such laws may deal with (i) the high seas, (2) tidal waters other than the high seas, (3) non-tidal waters. i. The claims of various nations to dominion over parts of the high seas have now become matters of merely historical interest. Such claims have been at different times advanced by Great Britain, Holland, Spain and Portugal, and were once sufficiently important to evoke the Mare Liberum of Grotius and the Mare Clausum of John Selden. It may be noted that in 1893 the Court of Arbitration on the Bering Sea Fisheries found that Russia had never claimed or exercised exclusive jurisdiction over the Bering Sea outside terri- torial waters and that the United States had no further right than had Russia at the time of the cession of Alaska in 1867. Rules for the navigation of the high seas may still be promulgated by any government. In Great Britain such rules, generally known as the " Sailing Rules," have been made by order in council under the powers of the Merchant Shipping Act 1862; the rules at present in force are those contained in the order of the 27th of November 1896, L.G. No. 1082, as amended by subsequent orders in council. The order of 1896 was extended by the order of 1897, L.G. No. 572, to the ships of most foreign countries, with a special provision as to China. In the case of a state which has not assented to them, the only rules enforceable are the general rules of the sea, gradually ascertained by individual cases before courts of admiralty. 2. For the navigation of its tidal waters — as far as they are territorial — a state may legislate without the assent of other states. An example of such legislation is afforded by the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878, a measure passe3 in consequence of the celebrated case of R. v. Keyn, L.R. 2 Ex. D., 126 (the " Franconia " case), in 1876. Under the head of territorial waters would fall the " narrow seas " (as the Bristol Channel, Great Belt or Straits of Messina), bays and harbours, estuaries and arms of the sea, navigable tidal rivers, and the sea for- the distance of a marine league from the shore. Such waters being res publicae though not res communes, as are the high seas, are prima facie subject to the jurisdiction of the state. In England the soil under such waters, or at least under all but the last kind, is prima facie vested in the crown, subject to the public rights of fishery and anchorage. For the distance of a marine league from low-water mark the crown has certainly jurisdiction for police and revenue purposes. This is a rule of general international law. It may be noted that the Institut de Droit International proposed to double this limit. See Hall, International Law (sth ed.), p. 154. In England the navigation of most of the principal tidal waters is governed by rules contained in acts of parliament and orders in council, the latter for the most part promulgated under the authority given by the Merchant Shipping Act 1862. For instance, there are numerous orders relating to the Thames, Mersey, Tees and other important rivers. 3. Non-tidal waters, even though navigable, are in Great Britain prima facie private waters, in which the right of navigation does not exist as a public franchise, but can only be acquired by prescription founded on a presumed grant by an owner. In Roman law and in the Code Napol6on it is otherwise. Navigable rivers in those systems are always publici juris, whether tidal or norf-tidal. Navigation of non-tidal waters in the United Kingdom, whether natural or artificial, is now almost entirely regulated by various Navigation and Con- servancy Acts, e.g. the Thames Conservancy Acts, the Shannon, Trent, Lee, &c., Navigation Acts, and the various Canal Acts, especially the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885. It may be noticed that the crown is empowered by the Merchant Shipping Act 1862 to make rules for the navigation of inland waters, even when artificial, on the application of the proprietors. Examples of such rules are the orders in council regulating the Mersey and Irwell navigation and the Bridgewater navigation, i8th May 1870. Such waters being private property, the application for the rules by the proprietors is recited in the order in council. The distinction drawn in the United States between navigable and boatable rivers seems to be peculiar to that country, unless indeed it is analogous to the " fleuves et rivieres navigables ou flottables " of the Code Napoleon, § 538. It is at least unknown in Great Britain. Remedies for Obstruction and Pollution. — These may be either criminal or civil — the criminal by indictment or information, the civil by action for damages or for an injunction, in addition to the criminal remedy, where special damage has been sustained. Pollu- tion is expressly provided for by the Rivers Pollution Prevention Act 1876, which gives jurisdiction to county courts in cases within the act. International Law. — The international law as to the navigation of the high seas has been sketched above. Reference should also be made to what is known as the " Rule of the War of 1756 " to the effect that where a colonial or coasting trade is prohibited to other nations in time of peace, a neutral by engaging in this trade by aermission of a belligerent in time of war is liable to the other Belligerent. The leading case is The Immanuel (1799), 2 C. Robinson's Rep. 186. Regulations for the coasting trade may be made by the government of India under the powers of the Customs Consolidation Act 1853, § 329, and by the legislature of a British aossession under the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 736. As to :erritorial waters, it is the general though not the universal opinion of jurists that the state to which the territorial waters belong has a right to forbid their navigation by foreigners. The free navigation of rivers has often been the subject of treaties, almost necessarily so where a river is the boundary between two states. In such a case, . if a state were to maintain the strict letter of its rights, navigation would be almost impossible, as each state is proprietor down to the middle line of the bed of the river, the medium filum aquae or thalweg. NAVIUS— NAVY AND NAVIES 299 By the treaty of Vienna in 1815 it was provided that the navigation of all rivers separating or traversing the states that were parties thereto should be open for commercial purposes to the vessels of all nations, subject to a uniform system of police and tolls. The treaty of Paris, 1856, extended this principle to the Danube. In America the cases of the Mississippi and the St Lawrence are important. ' By the treaty of Versailles, 1783, it was provided that " the navigation of the Mississippi shall for ever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States." But the United States afterwards acquired Louisiana and Florida; and, the stipulation as to British subjects not being renewed in the treaty of Ghent, 1814, the United States maintains that the right of navigat- ing the Mississippi is vested exclusively in its citizens. As to the St Lawrence, after disputes for a long period between Great Britain and the United States, the right of free navigation for purposes of commerce was secured to the United States by the treaty of Washing- ton, 1871. There are some waters, such as the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal, which are subject to peculiar engagements by treaty or convention. The former depends on the Convention of Con- stantinople, zgth of October 1888, the latter — as far as regards the United Kingdom and the United States — on the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, l8th of November 1901. But as a rule it may be said that in time of peace the territorial waters of a state are open to foreigners for commercial purposes, subject to observance of any rules as to police, pilotage, &c., imposed by the state. Tolls may be imposed by the state upon foreigners. This right is expressly recognized in most commercial treaties. A notable instance was the claim of Denmark to charge what were called the " Sound dues " from all vessels passing Elsinore, though the Sound was not strictly her territorial water. The right was not universally recognized, though it had prescription in its favour and was invariably paid. In 1857 the dues were abolished, and compensation paid to Denmark for the loss of her alleged right. (J. W.) NAVIUS, ATTUS, in Roman legendary history, a famous augur during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. When the latter desired to double the number of the equestrian centuries, Navius opposed him, declaring that it must not be done unless the omens were propitious, and, as a proof of his powers of divination, cut through a whetstone with a razor. Navius's statue with veiled head was afterwards shown in the comitium; the whet- stone and razor were buried in the same place, and a puteal placed over them. Hard by was a sacred fig-tree, called after him the Navian fig-tree. It was reported that Navius was subse- quently put to death by Tarquinius. According to Schwegler, the puteal originally indicated that the place had been struck by lightning, and the story is a reminiscence of the early struggle between the state and ecclesiasticism. .See Livy i. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 70; Aurelius Victor,' De viris ittustribus, 6; Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xv. 16. NAVVY, a labourer employed in the digging and excavating of earth, &c., in the construction of railways, docks, canals or other engineering operations. The word is a shortened form of " navigator," applied, during the i8th and early part of the igth centuries to a labourer at work on canals, to which the name " navigation " is often applied. Power-machines (excavators) for performing such work are consequently known as " steam- navvies." NAVY and NAVIES. The navy of a country was in its original meaning the total body of its shipping, whether used for war, for oversea and coasting traffic, or for fishing — the total in fact of its ships (Lat. naves). By custom, however, the word has come to be used only of that part of the whole which is set aside for purposes of war and police. Every navy consists of a material part (see SHIP), i.e. the vessels, with their means of propulsion and their armament, and of a human organization, namely the crews of all ranks, by which the vessels are handled. Ships and men are combined in divisions, and are ruled by an organ of the government to which they belong (see ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION). PERSONNEL The personnel of the British navy is composed of two different bodies of men, the seamen and the marines, each of which has its appropriate officers. The marines are the subject of a separate article. The officers of the navy are classed as follows in the order of their rank: flag-officers (see ADMIRAL), commodores, captains, staff captains, commanders, staff commanders, lieutenants, navigating lieutenants, sub-lieutenants, chief gunners, chief boatswains, chief carpenters, gunners, boatswains, carpenters, midshipmen, naval cadets. Flag-officers are divided into three ranks, viz. rear-admiral, vice- admiral, admiral. There is also the rank of " admiral of the fleet " : such an officer, if in command, would carry the union flag at the main. All flag-officers, commanders-in-chief , are considered as responsible for the conduct of the fleet or squadron under their command. They are bound to keep them in perfect condition for service; to exercise them frequently in forming orders of sailing and lines of battle, and in performing all such evolutions as may occur in the presence of an enemy; to direct the commanders of squadrons and divisions to inspect the state of each ship under their command ; to see that the established rules for good order, discipline and cleanliness are ob- served; and occasionally to inquire into these and other matters themselves. They are required to correspond with the secretary of the admiralty, and report to him all their proceedings. Every flag-officer serving in a fleet, but not commanding it, is required to superintend all the ships of the squadron or division placed under his orders — to see that their crews are properly disciplined, that all orders are punctually attended to, that the stores, provisions and water are kept as complete as circumstances will admit, that the seamen and marines are frequently exercised, and that every precaution is taken for preserving the health of their crews. When at sea, he is to take care that every ship in his division preserves her station in whatever line or order of sailing the fleet may be formed; and in battle he is to observe attentively the conduct of every ship near him, whether of the squadron or division under his immediate command or not ; and at the end of the battle he is to report it to the commandtr-in-chief , in order that commenda- tion or censure may be passed, as .he case may appear to merit ; and he is empowered to send an officer to supersede any captain who may misbehave in battle, or whose ship is evidently avoiding the en- gagement. If any flag-officer be killed in battle his flag is to be kept flying, and signals to be repeated, in the same manner as if he were still alive, until the battle shall be ended; but the death of a flag- officer, or his being rendered incapable of attending to his duty, is to be conveyed as expeditiously as possible to the commander-in-chief . The captain of the fleet is a temporary rank, where a commander- in-chief has ten or more ships of the line under his command ; it may be compared with that of adjutant-general in the army. He may either be a flag-officer or one of the senior captains; in the former case, he takes his rank with the flag-officers of the fleet ; in the latter, he ranks next to the junior rear-admiral, and is entitled to the pay and allowance of a rear-admiral. All orders of the commander-in- chief are issued through him, all returns of the fleet are made through him to the commander-in-chief, and he keeps a journal of the pro- ceedings of the fleet, which he transmits to the admiralty. He is appointed and can be removed from this situation only by the lords commissioners of the admiralty. A commodore is a temporary rank, and of two kinds — the one having a captain under him in the same ship, and the other without a captain. The former has the rank, pay and allowances of a rear- admiral, the latter the pay and allowances of a captain and special allowance as the lords of the admiralty may direct. They both carry distinguishing pennants. When a captain is appointed to command a ship of war he com- missions the ship by hoisting his pennant; and if fresh out of the dock, and from the hands of the dockyard officers, he proceeds im- mediately to prepare her for sea, by demanding her stores, provisions, guns and ammunition from the respective departments, according to her establishment. He enters such petty officers, leading seamen, able seamen, ordinary seamen, artificers, stokers, firemen and boys as may be sent to him from the flag or receiving ship. If he be appointed to succeed the captain of a ship already in commission, he passes a receipt to the said captain for the ship's books, papersand stores, and becomes responsible for the whole of the remaining stores and provisions. The duty of the captain of a ship, with regard to the several books and accounts, pay-books, entry, musters, discharges, &c., is regulated by various acts of parliament; but the state of the internal discipline, the order, regularity, cleanliness and the health of the crews will depend mainly on himself and his officers. In all these respects the general printed orders for his guidance contained in the King's Regulations and Admiralty Instructions are particularly precise and minute. And, for the information of the ship's company, he is directed to cause the articles of war, and abstracts of all acts of parliament for the encouragement of seamen, and all such orders and regulations for discipline as may be established, to be hung up in some public part of the ship, to which the men may at all times have access. He is also to direct that they be read to the ship's company, all the officers being present, once at least in every month. He is desired to be particularly careful that the chaplain have shown to him the attention and respect due to his sacred office by all the officers and men, and that divine service be performed every Sunday. He is not authorized to inflict summary punishment on any com- missioned or warrant-officer, but he may place them under arrest, and suspend any officer who shall misbehave, until an opportunity shall offer of trying such officer by a court-martial. He is enjoined to be very careful not to suffer the inferior officers or men to be treated with cruelty and oppression by their superiors. He is the authority who can order punishment to be inflicted, which he is never to do without sufficient cause, nor ever with greater severity than the offence may really deserve, nor until twenty-four hours after 300 NAVY AND NAVIES ANCIENT the crime has been committed, which must be specified in the warrant ordering the punishment. He may delegate this authority to a limited extent to certain officers. All the officers and the whole ship's company are to be present at every punishment, which must be inserted in the log-book, and an abstract sent to the admiralty every quarter. The commander has the chief command in small vessels. In larger vessels he is chief of the staff to the captain and assists him in main- taining discipline, and in sailing and fighting the ship. The lieutenants take the watch by turns, and are at such times entrusted, in the absence of the captain, with the command of the ship. The one on duty is to inform the captain of all important occurrences which take place during his watch. He is to see that the whole of the duties of the ship are carried on with the same punctu- ality as if the captain himself were present. In the absence of the captain, the commander or senior executive officer is responsible for everything done on board. The navigating officer receives his orders from the captain or the senior executive officer. He is entrusted, under the command of the captain, with the charge of navigating the ship, bringing her to aftchor, ascertaining the latitude and longitude of her place at sea, surveying harbours, and making such nautical remarks and observa- tions as may be useful to navigation in general. The warrant-officers of the navy may he compared with the non- commissioned officers of the army. They take rank as follows, viz. gunner, boatswain, carpenter; and, compared with other officers, they take rank after sub-lieutenarts and before midshipmen. The midshipmen are the principal subordinate officers, but have no specific duties assigned to them. In the smaller vessels some of the senior ones are entrusted with the watch; they attend parties of men sent on shore, pass the word of command on board, and see that the orders of their superiors are carried into effect; in short, they are exercised in all the duties of their profession, so as, after five years' service as cadets and midshipmen, to qualify them to become lieutenants, and are then rated sub-lisutenants provided they have passed the requisite examination. The duties and relative positions of these officers remain practi- cally unaffected by recent changes; but a profound modification was made in the constitution of the corps of officers at the close of 1902. Up to the end of that year, officers who belonged to the " executive " branch, i.e. from midshipmen to admiral, to the marines and the engineers, had entered at different ages, had been trainecf in separate schools, and had formed three co-operating but independent lines. For reasons set forth in a memorandum by Lord Selborne (December 16, 1902) — from the desire to give a more scientific character to naval education, and to achieve complete unity among all classes of officers — it was decided to replace the triple by a single system of entry, and to coalesce all classes of officers, apart from the purely civil lines — surgeons and paymasters (formerly " pursers ") — into one. Lads were in future to be entered together, and at one training establishment at Osborne in the Isle of Wight, on the distinct under- standing that it was to be at the discretion of the admiralty to assign them to executive, marine or engineer duties at a later period. After two years' training at Osborne, and at the Naval College at Dart- mouth, all alike were to go through the rank of midshipman and to pass the same examination for lieutenant. When in the intermediate position of sub-lieutenant, they were to be assigned to their respec- tive branches as executive officer, marine or engineer. The engineers under this new system were to cease to be a civil branch, as they had been before, and become known as lieutenant, commander, captain or rear-admiral E. (Engineer). The crew of a ship of war consists of leading seamen, able seamen, ordinary seamen, engine-room artificers, other artificers, leading stokers, stokers, coal-trimmers, boys and marines. The artificers and stokers and the marines are always entered voluntarily, the latter in the same manner as soldiers, by enlisting into the corps, the former at some rendezvous or on board particular ships. The supply of boys for the navy, from whom the seamen class of men and petty officers is recruited, is also obtained by voluntary entry. Merchant seamen are admitted into the royal naval reserve, receive an annual payment by way of retainer, perform drill on board His Majesty's ships, and are engaged to serve in the navy in case of war or emergency. There are two schemes for forming reserves. The Royal Naval Reserve scheme draws men from the mercantile marine and fishing population of the United Kingdom. The Royal Fleet Reserve scheme, introduced in 1901, while it gave a better system of training to the pensioners, was mainly designed to obtain the services in war of the men who had quitted the navy after the expiration of their twelve years' service. So far as other countries are concerned, the staff of officers does not differ materially from one navy to another. In all it consists of admirals, captains, lieutenants, midshipmen and cadets receiving their training in special schools. With the exception of the navy of the United States, all the important naval forces of the world are raised by conscription. The strength and general condition of navies at any given time must be learnt from the official publications of the various powers, and from privately composed books founded on them. The yearly statements of the First Lord of the Admiralty in Great Britain, the Reports of the Secretary of the Navy in the United States, and the Reports of the Budget Committees of the French-Chamber contain masses of information. The Naval Annual, founded by Lord Brassey in 1886, is the model of publications which appear in nearly every country which possesses a navy. Mr F. T. Jane's All the World's Fighting Ships is a survey of the materiel of navies since 1898. HISTORY OF NAVIES Every navy was at its beginning formed of the fighting men of the tribe, or city, serving in the ship or large boat, which was used indifferently for fishing, trade, war or piracy. The develop- ment of the warship as a special type, and the formation of organized bodies of men set aside for military service on the sea came later. We can follow the process from its starting-point in the case of the naval powers of the dark and middle ages, the Norsemen, the Venetians, the French, the English fleet and others. But centuries, and indeed millenniums, before the modern world emerged from darkness the nations of antiquity who lived on the shores of the Mediterranean had formed navies and had seen them culminate and decline. The adven- tures of the Argonauts and of Ulysses give a legendary and poetic picture of an " age of the Vikings " which was coming to an end two thousand years before the Norsemen first vexed the west of Europe. At a period anterior to written history necessity bad dictated the formation of vessels adapted to the purposes of the warrior. Long ships built for speed Qj.aKpal VT\K, naves longae) as distinguished from round ships for burden (aTpoyyii\ai i>ij«, naves onerariae) are of extreme antiquity (see SHIP). Greek tradition credited the Corinthians with the invention, but it is probable that the Hellenic peoples, in this as in other respects, had a Phoenician model before them. So little is known of the other early navies, whether Hellenic or non-Hellenic, that we must be content to take the Athenian as our example of them all, with a constant recognition of the fact that it was certainly the most highly developed, and that we cannot safely argue from it to the rest. The Athenian navy began with the provision of warships by the state, because private citizens could not supply them in sufficient numbers. The approach of the Persian attack in 483 B.C. drove Athens to raise its establish- Att ment from 50 to 100 long ships, which were paid for out of the profits of the mines of Moroneia (see THEMISTOCLES). The Persian danger compelled the Greeks to form a league for their common naval defence. The League had its first headquarters at Delos, where its treasury was guarded and administered by the 'EXXTjiwa/uai (Hellenotamiai), or trustees of the Hellenic fund. Her superiority in maritime strength gave Athens a predominance over the other members of "the League like that which Holland enjoyed for the same reason in the Seven United Provinces. The Hellenotamiai were chosen from among her citizens, and Pericles transferred the fund to Athens, which became the mistress of the League. The allies sank in fact to subjects, and their contributions, aided by the produce of the mines, went to the support of the Athenian navy. The hundred long ships of the Persian War grew to three hundred by the end of the 5th century B.C. (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR), and at a later period (when, however, the quality of ships and men alike had sunk) to three hundred and sixty. The ancient world did not attain to the formation of a civil service — at least until the time of the Roman Empire — and Athens had no admiralty or navy office. In peace the war-vessels were kept on slips under cover in sheds. In war a stralegos was appointed to the general command, and he chose the trierarchs, whose duty it was to commission them partly at their own expense, under supervision of the state exercised by special inspectors (cbroerToXels). The hulls, oars, rigging and pay of the crews were provided by the state, but it is certain that heavy charges fell upon the trierarchs, who had to fit the ships for sea and return them in good condi- tion. The burden became so heavy that the trierarchies were divided, first between two citizens in the Peloponnesian War, and then among groups (synteleiai) consisting of from five to sixteen persons. Individual Athenians who were wealthy and patriotic or ambitious might fit out ships or spend freely on BRITISH] NAVY AND NAVIES 301 their command. But these voluntary gifts were insufficient to maintain a great navy. The necessity which compelled modern nations to form permanent state navies, instead of relying on a levy of ships from the ports, and such vessels as English nobles and gentlemen sent to fight the Armada, prevailed in Athens also. The organization of the crews bore a close resemblance in the general lines to that of the English navy as it was till the i6th and even the lyth century. The trierarchv either the citizen named to discharge the duty, or some one whom he paid to replace him, answered to the captain. There was a sailing master (